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Huatulco

Cactus Fruits

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By Julie Etra

For starters, let’s be clear: all cacti flower and produce fruit if their flowers are pollinated. But that doesn’t mean all cactus fruits are edible — or tasty by human standards. And there are a lot of cactus species (family Cactaceae) in Mexico and the southwestern United States.

Tuna
The most common edible cactus fruit comes from the nopal cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), known in Mexico as “tuna” — no relation to the fish (atún). In English, they’re called prickly pear cactus, and yes, they are spiny. The nopal is the most widely distributed and economically important cactus in Mexico and appears symbolically on the Mexican flag: a golden eagle perched on a nopal pad (penca). Its tender shoots and fruits are eaten throughout the country.

It’s also a common genus in the southwestern U.S., including the Mojave and Sonoran deserts and the Great Basin. There are numerous varieties of nopal; one source suggests 220 species of Opuntia, with 60–90 in Mexico. In Plantas Mexicanas: Catálogo de nombres vulgares y científicos (Martínez, M. 1979. Fondo de Cultura Económica), I counted 31 species of Opuntia. I didn’t research how many, beyond O. ficus-indica, are widely consumed in Mexico.

The red and white prickly pear fruits are the most popular, with white tuna being the most recognized nationwide. They grow throughout much of central and northern Mexico, flowering and fruiting from April to October. Both red and white varieties are loaded with seeds — making prickly pear jam a true labor of love (I’ve done it exactly once!). Look for delicious tuna nieves (ices) and aguas (fruit drinks) at the Mercado Orgánico de Huatulco and elsewhere. Prickly pear candy is another product, and in Arizona, you can even find a lollipop shaped like a prickly pear.

By the way, nopal pencas have been a staple of the Mexican diet for centuries. The plant has been bred so that cultivated varieties have fewer spines; farms around Huatulco commonly grow these. Walk by Los Parados along Carrizal in the morning, or elsewhere in La Crucecita, and you’ll see people peeling and slicing the pads for salsas and tacos. They’re highly nutritious.

Xoconostle
Another edible cactus fruit is the xoconostle (Opuntia joconostle), whose name comes from Náhuatl: “xococ” means sour or bitter, and “nochtli” is the word for the fruit (tuna). True to its name, it’s distinctly bitter and commonly used in stews, sauces, and moles. The taxonomy can get confusing, as I discovered in Plantas Mexicanas.

Pitaya
This fruit is known in English as dragon fruit, and in Mexico as pitaya, pitayas, or pitahayas. The word derives from an Antillean (Caribbean) language meaning “scaly.” The plant itself is a large, candelabra-like, drooping cactus with thick, fleshy branches.

Pitaya refers to the fruit rather than the specific plant; there are 23 entries for pitaya in Plantas Mexicanas. The main species are Selenicereus undatus and Stenocereus queretaroensis (the genus was formerly Hylocereus). Unlike nopal, this cactus is spineless. It’s native to southern Mexico, Guatemala’s Pacific coast, Costa Rica, and El Salvador.

The flesh is rich in vitamin C, iron, calcium, phosphorus, and fructose. Pitaya is versatile — used in smoothies, juices, and jams.

Biznaga
Biznaga is the common name for barrel cacti, and there are 26 references to it in Plantas Mexicanas. These squat, round, barrel-shaped cacti get their name from the Náhuatl “huitznáhuac” (surrounded by spines), which became “biznaga” when adopted into Spanish (and yes, the Spanish struggled with Náhuatl pronunciation — as do I).

There’s more than one genus of biznaga, and the edible species is most likely Ferocactus wislizenii (fishhook cactus), which produces small pineapple-like fruits called guamiche — known as the “drunken” fruit because they can ferment naturally as they ripen. Native to northern Mexico and the southwestern U.S., they’re quite distinctive.

Another notable barrel cactus is Echinocactus platyacanthus, known as the giant barrel cactus, golden barrel cactus, giant viznaga, or biznaga de dulce. Its Náhuatl name is huitzli nahual. Native to central Mexico and the Chihuahuan desert, its spongy pith is boiled and crystallized to make acitrón, a traditional Mexican candy.

However, due to overexploitation, biznagas are now endangered, and it’s illegal to harvest them — plus, their preparation is complicated. Like most cacti, they grow extremely slowly: young plants can grow about an inch per year, but growth slows with age.

The red biznaga (Ferocactus histrix), also called acitrón barrel cactus (biznaga barril de acitrón), yields a delicacy called cabuches (aka chilitos) — tender buds of the fruit, collected at precisely the right moment. These buds, found in the highlands of San Luis Potosí and near Matehuala, look like colorful asparagus tips and taste a bit like tiny artichokes. Needless to say, they’re hard to collect thanks to the long protective spines.

A third, less common barrel cactus genus is Melocactus, known as the Turk’s cap cactus. Its tiny fruits aren’t significant in the Mexican diet or culture, but they resemble chiltepin peppers — the wild chiles found throughout Mexico — though they aren’t spicy.

Garambullo
There are nine references to garambullo in Plantas Mexicanas. The garambullo cactus most associated with edible fruits is likely Myrtillocactus schenckii, native to Oaxaca, Chiapas, and Puebla, or M. geometrizans. The small, sweet red or purple fruits can be juiced for aguas, jams, and nieves. While it makes an effective dye, processing it in quantity is tedious.

Zapotitlán Salinas, a pueblo in Puebla, is renowned for its alcoholic beverage made from macerated M. geometrizans fruits. Small quantities of the fruit are found in local markets in Mexico’s arid regions, where they’re said to taste like blueberries.

Whether enjoyed fresh, candied, juiced, or preserved, cactus fruits are deeply woven into Mexico’s culinary and cultural landscape. Their diversity reflects the country’s rich biodiversity and traditions — a reminder that even the most unassuming plants hold surprising flavors, stories, and significance.

Huatulco

Valles Centrales

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By Julie Etra

The Central Valleys (Spanish: Valles Centrales) of Oaxaca—also known as the Oaxaca Valley—are a geographic region encompassing the municipalities of Etla, Centro, Zaachila, Zimatlán, Ocotlán, Tlacolula, and Ejutla. This area is home to important and well-known archaeological and cultural sites, including Monte Albán, Tule, and Mitla, as well as lesser-visited sites such as Yagul and the Guilá Naquitz Cave.

The cave is especially notable as the verified birthplace of the oldest distinctly recognizable ancestor of modern annual corn: teosinte, a perennial grass with tiny mazorcas (corn ears) about the size of a slender finger. More on that in a bit.

Geography and Climate
The Y-shaped valley lies at the intersection of two major Oaxacan mountain ranges: the Sierra Madre del Sur and the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca (colloquially known as the Sierra Norte), which is an extension of the larger Sierra Madre Oriental. (Sierra means “mountain range.” For context, I live on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada in northern Nevada—which, once upon a time, was part of Mexico.)

Oaxaca City sits at the heart of the valley at an average elevation of 1,550 meters (5,115 feet). With access to water from the Río Atoyac and Río Salado (though not in great shape today), the area has long been attractive for settlement. The valley spans more than 3,375 square kilometers (1,303 square miles), with about 1,100 km² (700 mi²) of arable land—by far the largest stretch of flat, farmable land in this mountainous state.

The Tlacolula Valley stretches 50 kilometers (31 miles) east, the Zimatlán Valley runs 100 kilometers (62 miles) south, and the Etla Valley extends 40 kilometers (25 miles) northwest.

The climate is subtropical highland, with warm temperatures year-round—something that often surprises winter visitors. Rainy and dry seasons are distinct, much like the coast, though less extreme. The valley averages about 69.5 cm (27.4 inches) of rainfall per year. Winter temperatures hover around 17°C (63°F) in November through January, rising to around 22°C (72°F) from May through August.

Geology
The Valley of Oaxaca has an ancient and complex geology. It features a mix of Precambrian metamorphic rocks (dating back 4.6 billion to 541 million years), Mesozoic sedimentary layers (252 to 66 million years ago), and Tertiary igneous rocks (66 million to 2.6 million years ago).

The valley floor is composed of gneisses (coarse to medium-grained metamorphic rocks) and mylonites (fine-grained rocks found along fault zones). Surface rocks include schists, granodiorite, and limestones, the latter indicating the presence of an inland lake or sea in the distant past. Sediment from surrounding mountain erosion has also filled much of the valley.

This is a tectonically active zone—part of the Oaxaca Fault System, where the Cocos Plate subducts beneath the North American Plate along the Middle American Trench. That’s why Oaxaca is so seismically active: about 25% of all earthquakes in Mexico occur here. The January 14, 1931, earthquake, which registered 8.0 on the Richter scale, flattened the city.
Further reading:
http://www.wiki.santafe.edu/images/4/45/Ch3-1.pdf

Economy
Besides tourism and crafts (alebrijes, ceramics, textiles), the valley continues to support extensive agriculture. Crops include corn, sorghum, beans, wheat, melon, watermelon, garbanzo beans, and of course, agave (maguey) for mezcal production. Corn remains the most culturally and economically significant crop.

Today, you’ll also see large greenhouses growing ornamental plants—visible when flying in with Aerotucán or driving into the valley from the south via Highway 175. Flowers such as flor de cempasúchil (marigolds, genus Tagetes), flor de borla or cresta de gallo (Celosia argentea, aka cockscombs), and terciopelo (velvet flower) are cultivated for Day of the Dead altars (ofrendas). Roses are also grown here and sold in markets, including those in La Crucecita.

Important
Archaeological Sites

Yagul
Located midway between Oaxaca City and Mitla on Highway 190, Yagul is a former Zapotec city-state first settled around 500–100 BCE. It remained occupied up through the Spanish conquest. The name “Yagul” is Zapotec: ya means tree and gul means old—“old tree.” (What specific tree? That remains a mystery.)

Excavated in the 1950s and 60s by archaeologists Ignacio Bernal and John Paddock, Yagul is built around a hill and includes a large ball court, palaces, temples, and tombs. Building materials included cobbles from the Río Salado and volcanic rock like basalt. The community likely reached its peak between 1250 and 1521 CE. After the conquest, much of the population relocated to nearby Tlacolula, which now hosts a well-known and colorful market.

Guilá Naquitz Cave
This site is particularly close to my heart. Back in the 1980s, as a student at Colorado State University, we had a few teosinte plants on the university farm. As a grad student, one of my jobs was to help propagate heirloom corn (maíz criollo) seeds to preserve their genetic integrity. Years later, DNA mapping confirmed that teosinte was indeed the ancestor of modern corn—and that it originated here, in Oaxaca.

Guilá Naquitz Cave (Zapotec for “white cave”) is located about 5 km (3.1 mi) northwest of Mitla, likely in a limestone outcrop. This site is of enormous ethnobotanical and paleobotanical importance, documenting the early domestication of crops like teosinte, squash (Cucurbita spp.), bottle gourds (Lagenaria siceraria), and beans.

Inhabited as early as 10,000 years ago, the area once supported a rich variety of edible plants consumed by hunter-gatherers—acorns, wild fruits and berries, prickly pear cactus (tuna), agave, nuts such as yak susí (the identity of which remains unclear), wild onions, and more. Sadly, centuries of land-use change have greatly diminished this ecosystem. The cave is located at the base of a cliff at an elevation of 1,926 meters (6,319 feet).

Highlighted Communities in the Valley
Here’s a small, somewhat random selection of communities we’ve passed through on our drives to Oaxaca City:

Ejutla de Crespo
Located at the southern end of the valley, Ejutla means “place of abundant greens” in Nahuatl. “Crespo” refers to Manuel Sabino Crespo, a contemporary of Morelos during the War of Independence. The town’s economy centers on agriculture and mezcal production.

Ocotlán de Morelos
With a population of around 23,000, this town was bypassed about a decade ago when a new commercial route diverted traffic away from its bustling central square. The name Ocotlán comes from Nahuatl and means “among the ocote trees,” referring to the pine species found descending from the oak-pine woodlands above. The suffix honors José María Morelos y Pavón, Catholic priest and independence leader. Agriculture is the main economic driver.

San Bartolo Coyotepec
Just five kilometers (three miles) south of Oaxaca City, this town is famed for its barro negro (black clay) pottery. The shiny finish comes from polishing and specific firing techniques. There’s a wonderful little museum on the west side of the main highway. Years ago, my sister and I eavesdropped on a workshop there.

Villa de Zaachila
This town and municipality is 6 km (3.7 mi) south of Oaxaca City along Highway 131. Before the conquest, it was the main city-state after the fall of Monte Albán. The name may refer to its 14th–15th century ruler Zaachila Yoo—or it may mean “large leaf of the purslane” (Portulaca oleracea), a crunchy succulent considered a weed in the U.S. but a valued quelite in Mexico. You’ll often find verdolaga in local markets and dishes (see The Eye Archives:
http://www.theeyehuatulco.com/?s=quelites).

Huatulco

Cuernavaca To-do List

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By Julie Etra

Robert Brady Museum

This almost overwhelming museum is located in the former home of Robert Brady, a wealthy American art collector who expatriated to Cuernavaca after being encouraged to visit Mexico—particularly Cuernavaca—by socialite and arts patron Peggy Guggenheim. She, along with other celebrities, became a lifelong friend. Born into a railroad-money family in the Midwest, Brady showed an early curiosity about art and, as a young adult with means, traveled extensively and began collecting.

In 1962, he purchased a deteriorated 16th-century monastery in Cuernavaca, which he restored and remodeled into a permanent residence. When he died in 1986, the home and its entire collection were donated to the municipality to be preserved as a museum, just as he left it. The collection is remarkable in both size and quality, with placards identifying the origin of each piece throughout the home. While much of the collection is Mexican, it’s also wonderfully eclectic—featuring art from Africa (notably the Masai), Indonesia, New Guinea, the Pacific Northwest, Haiti, India, South America, and Alaska.
http://www.museorobertbrady.com

Museo Regional Cuauhnahuac (Museo Regional de los Pueblos de Morelos)

“Cuernavaca” is a Spanish adaptation of “Cuauhnáhuac,” the original Nahuatl name used by the Tlalhuicas and Xochimilcas (and to a lesser extent the Toltecs)—and no, it doesn’t mean “horn of the cow,” as I once thought. To the Nahuatl, it meant “surrounded by trees.

The building itself is extraordinary. Construction began in 1526, just five years after the fall of Tenochtitlan, (present-day Mexico City, 65 km (40 miles) to the north), and was completed in 1531. Often referred to as the Palacio de Cortés, it was the home of Hernán Cortés and his second wife, Juana Zúñiga. It looks part fortress, part palace, and has served many purposes over the centuries. After being badly damaged in the 2017 earthquake, it reopened on March 30, 2023, with updated exhibits and structural repairs.

Now a regional museum, it includes excellent pre-Hispanic artifacts, natural history exhibits (did you know Mexico has the greatest diversity of pine trees in the world?), and a replica cuexcomate—a pre-Hispanic corn storage structure unique to Morelos. The second-floor highlight is eight murals by Diego Rivera from 1930 titled The History of Morelos: Conquest and Revolution, which are impressively preserved. There are also two oil paintings from 1938 by Spanish painter Salvador Tarazona and a mural by him on the upstairs vault.

After the post-earthquake repairs, it reopened as the Museo Nacional de Los Pueblos de Morelos (the National Museum of the Peoples of Morelos); it has a facebook page (https://www.facebook.com/p/Museo-Regional-de-los-Pueblos-de-Morelos.

Jardín Botánico y Museo de Medicina Tradicional y Herbolaría (Botanical Garden and Museum of Traditional Medicine and Herbalism)

This peaceful four-hectare garden is located on the former El Olindo estate, once home to a 19th-century summer house built for Maximilian of Habsburg (briefly Emperor of Mexico from 1864 until his execution in 1867). Called Casa de la India Bonita (House of the Beautiful Indigenous Woman), it’s now home to a lovely botanical garden focused on native and medicinal plants.

Although the museum (inside the summer house) was closed during our visit, the garden itself is thoughtfully divided by plant type. While some areas—like the medicinal plant section—could use a little extra care, most of the labels were still clear and informative. A standout was the cuajilote (Parmentiera aculeata), a small tree in the Bignoniaceae family. Its fruit and flowers grow directly from the trunk, and the fruit fibers were once used in making cuexcomates.
https://sic.gob.mx/ficha.php?table=museo&table_id=736

Sunday Night on the Plaza de Armas

We had a great view of the plaza from a second-floor restaurant in a nearby shopping complex. After dinner, we joined the action below. There were the expected food carts (this is Mexico, after all), and we tried the local version of gaspacho moreliano—a fruit salad in a cup—called excamocha.

A group of mariachis played for 300 pesos per song, and we requested two. A payaso (clown) entertained children seated in bleachers with tricks, pantomime, and acrobatics, with kids eagerly joining in. Fun fact: there are professional clown schools in Mexico! If you’re on Facebook, check out Escuela de Payasos México—it’s a serious craft.

Meanwhile, a group of teenagers played a fast-paced hybrid of hacky sack and soccer, weaving through the crowd, while adults placed bets on the outcome. It was a joyful, chaotic scene.

Xochicalco Archaeological Site and Museum

Just 30 minutes from Cuernavaca, this under-the-radar site is absolutely worth visiting. The modern museum building is thoughtfully designed to maximize natural light, reducing the need for artificial lighting.

Xochicalco, meaning “Place of the House of Flowers” in Nahuatl (xochitl = flower, calli = house, -co = place), was likely founded around 650 CE and thrived between 700–900 CE. Its mountaintop location wasn’t just for defense—it was ceremonial.

According to our guide, about 500 elite residents lived in the religious center, with another 15,000 or so spread across the lower terraces. The city featured an astronomical observatory (closed during our visit), clever drainage systems, and a massive cistern. Around 900 CE, Xochicalco was destroyed by fire and largely abandoned, though a small population remained. It was later recolonized around 1200 by the Nahuatl-speaking Tlahuica people.

Hacienda Vista Hermosa

We stayed at this restored hacienda after reading a glowing review in The New York Times last October. The article profiled several historic haciendas in central Mexico, but this one stood out for its history, location, and grounds.

Built in 1528 by none other than Hernán Cortés—he was granted the land as an encomendero—it was originally a sugar cane plantation. Like many haciendas, it was abandoned after the Mexican Revolution and agrarian reform, but has since been partially restored, likely in the 1990s (judging by the tilework, bathroom fixtures, and lack of air conditioning).

The property is stunning. With over 100 rooms, a huge pool that doubles as a fountain, stables with well-kept horses, and lush landscaping, it offers a charming (if slightly dated) getaway. We were lucky enough to get a private tour of the original dungeon—lit by cleverly designed skylights and with a hidden exit near the restaurant. Fun indeed.

Huatulco

Mexican Opals

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By Julie Etra

Yes, Mexico mines and refines opals, primarily around Querétaro today and formerly in the state of Jalisco. Opal enthusiasts can even take tours near La Trinidad, less than 30 minutes from Tequisquiapan, to explore the region’s rich opal deposits (see Kary Vannice’s article elsewhere in this issue).

Global Distribution
Opals are found worldwide in specific geological formations, with each region producing distinct varieties. In addition to Mexico, opal mines exist in Germany, France, Spain, New Zealand, Australia, England, and Nevada, USA. Nevada opal, found in the Virgin Valley northeast of Las Vegas, is a type of fire opal, similar to the vibrant opals mined in Mexico.

The Origins of the Name
The word “opal” is derived from the Latin opalus, related to sight and light, while the Greek opallious means “to see a change of color.” Opals have been admired since ancient times, with the Roman author and naturalist Pliny the Elder describing them around 55 A.D.

In the Aztec civilization, opals were known as Vitzitziltecpa in the Nahuatl language, meaning “hummingbird stone.” The Aztecs believed opals had magical and healing properties, and these gemstones, mined in Querétaro, were often presented as tribute to the rulers of Tenochtitlán. Examples of these opals can be seen today at the Museo del Templo Mayor in Mexico City.

Legends and Myths
One of the most famous legends about opals comes from India. In Hindu mythology, the gods Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu quarreled over a beautiful maiden. The Eternal One, tired of their bickering, transformed her into a cloud and dyed it in multiple colors to distinguish it from others. As the cloud dissolved into rain and touched the earth, it created opal—known as the “stone of a thousand colors.”

Types of Opals
Opals are classified into two main types: precious (also called noble) and common. The key difference is that precious opals exhibit a “play of color,” shifting hues depending on the angle and light, while common opals are typically translucent and lack this effect.

Precious Opal Varieties:
Black Opal: A dark-bodied opal (black, dark blue, or gray) with striking play of color.

White Opal: Light-colored (white or pale cream) with a delicate color play.

Boulder Opal: Found attached to its ironstone or sandstone host rock.

Crystal Opal: Transparent to semi-translucent with vibrant play of color.

Matrix Opal: Displays color play throughout the entire stone, not just on the surface.

Fire Opal: Translucent to transparent with red, orange, or yellow hues, often found in Mexico.

Pink Opal: A common opal variety ranging in shades of pink.

Hyalite Opal: A clear, glass-like opal with no play of color.

Dark Opal: Has a darker body tone but is not as deep as black opal.

Common Opal (also known as Potch):
– Lacks the characteristic play-of-color found in precious opal.
-Can be found in various colors, including purple, pink, blue, and green.

·Doublet and Triplet Opals:
These are assembled opals, where a thin layer of opal is bonded to a backing (doublet) or sandwiched between two pieces of resin or potch (triplet).

Opal Formation
Opals are formed through volcanic activity and are composed of a silica-based gel that can contain up to 10% water. Silica, a compound of silicon and oxygen, is also found in quartz crystals and beach sand.

Opal formation is associated with geothermal activity—hot springs and geysers bring silica-rich water to the surface, where it settles into cracks and fissures, gradually hardening into layers. Opals most commonly form in rocks such as:

Limonite: An iron ore.
Sandstone: A sedimentary rock.
Marl: A light-colored, carbonate-rich mud found in freshwater and marine environments.
Rhyolite & Basalt: Volcanic rocks associated with Mexico’s opal deposits.

Mexican Opals
Mexico is famous for its fire opals, which range from translucent to transparent red, orange, and yellow. Despite their name, not all fire opals exhibit play of color—the term refers to their body color rather than optical effects.

Opals were prized by the Aztecs, but large-scale mining did not resume until the early 1800s, when Querétaro became a major hub for opal extraction. In the 1950s, opals were discovered northwest of Guadalajara in Jalisco, near the town of Magdalena. By the 1960s, Magdalena was surrounded by hundreds of small-scale mines. Although much of the area was mined out by the 1970s, some open-pit mining continues today, using bulldozers and backhoes to extract opals from rhyolite formations.

If you’re looking to purchase fire opals, La Crucecita offers various options—but quality varies. For expert guidance and high-quality stones, Cielito Lindo is a trusted local jeweler.

Huatulco

Encomienda and the Caste System in Mexico

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By Julie Etra

Encomendar = Entrust

Spanish Origin
This legal system of forced labor originated in medieval Spain after the Reconquista in 1492, when King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella wrested control over Andalus (also known as Andalucia, a region of southern Spain). The system was established to extract tribute from the defeated Moors (originally from the Atlas Mountains of Morocco), many of whom were expelled to North Africa—an estimated three million people. Some returned and converted to Catholicism, becoming known as Moriscos. The system rewarded soldiers and financiers who had contributed to Spain’s conquests, including those of the Canary Islands off the coast of Africa.

Exportation to the New World and the Philippines
The encomienda system was first introduced to the newly conquered Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic and Haiti) in 1502 and later to Mexico and the Philippines, where it took on slight regional variations. In is 2009 study The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521-1555, Robert Himmerich y Valencia, Associate Professor of History at the University of New Mexico provides an excellent description of the encomienda: “a grant of “a grant of the Indians of a prescribed indigenous polity, who were to provide the grantee (the encomendero) tribute in the form of commodities and service in return for protection and religious instruction.”

New Spain needed free labor for its silver mines and religious conversion efforts. Officially approved by the Spanish Crown in 1503, the system expanded southward to Spanish colonies in Central and South America and throughout the Caribbean. Initially, the right to encomienda was granted to an adelantado or encomendero, a conquistador awarded the opportunity to conquer new territories on behalf of the Spanish Crown. This system was later extended to adventurers, colonizers, and even municipalities. It was essentially slavery under a different name—a legal arrangement that did not allocate land or other physical resources, such as mines or haciendas, which came later. The only distinction from outright slavery was that the indigenous workers could not be sold or inherited. The adelantado retained 80% of acquired wealth, while the Crown received the remaining 20%.

Structure
There were 506 encomienda grants in Mexico. Though granted for life, they were not inheritable, and most reverted to the Crown upon the encomendero’s death, with small provisions made for surviving family members. The size of the population tied to a particular encomienda varied, averaging around 2,000 family units, though these units could differ in composition. Some encomiendas were much larger—for example, Hernán Cortés’s encomienda included over 23,000 family units.

Smaller encomiendas were adequate for property improvements and cultivation. They also allowed a settler to build a home, feed his family, and maintain a small entourage of salaried personal followers (paniaguados) to protect his holdings from rebellious native groups and marauding Europeans. Additionally, encomenderos were responsible for paying the parish priest.

Decline
The system was short-lived, with major reforms attempted in 1573. It was perceived as abusive and counterproductive, especially as the population of New Spain had declined drastically—from approximately 22 million in 1500 to just 3 million by 1550 due to disease and forced labor fatalities. Additionally, there were not enough licenses available to meet demand, and there were too few indigenous workers left to sustain the system. As a result, the Spanish Crown decided to place control of the conquered population directly under royal authority instead of under the powerful encomenderos. The system was officially abolished on September 17, 1721, when the issuance of new encomiendas in all of Spain’s colonies was prohibited. However, remnants of the system persisted in parts of Mexico until the early 18th century and lingered in the Yucatán Peninsula until the 1780s.

Repartimiento
The repartimiento system replaced encomienda, shifting labor control from private individuals to the Spanish colonial government. Under this system, Spanish colonists and municipalities were granted the right to extract forced but low-paid labor from local communities in conquered territories. Designed to replace the inefficient encomienda system, repartimiento was eventually limited to crucial industries such as food and textile production and precious metal mining.

For further reading, see Marcia Chaiken and Jan Chaiken’s article on slavery in Mexico on page 8.

Huatulco

Public Transportation in Mexico City

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By Julie Etra

Pre-Hispanic Transportation
The original form of transportation in the pre-conquest city of Tenochtitlán, now modern Mexico City, was by flat-bottomed canoes called trajineras. It is unclear if there was any form of “public” transportation through the canal systems surrounding the island. Some of these canals persisted until about 1920 and continued to be used for commerce—particularly for transporting food and flowers—as well as for personal transportation. At the time, these canals and aqueducts connected the heart of the city to areas like Chalco and Xochimilco in the south. Xochimilco, and to a lesser extent Lago Nabor Carrillo, are existing remnants of the pre-conquest wetland system. Lago Nabor Carrillo, an artificial rectangular lake, is what remains of Lake Texcoco. It is hydrologically isolated, contains numerous wells, and serves as a water storage system for Mexico City.
The 20th Century
Electric trams, or tranvías as they are known in Spanish, began operating in the historic central part of the city in the 1900s. These streetcars were initially horse-drawn but were later modernized with overhead electrical lines while still using the original rail system. The Compañía de Tranvías Eléctricos de México took ownership of the city’s public transportation network in 1901. As automobiles became more popular in the 1930s, public transportation expanded to include an extensive bus system that served what were then considered the outskirts of the city, such as Coyoacán.
The newer Servicio de Transportes Eléctricos was organized in 1947 but did not completely take control of the system until 1952. Following the activation of the Metro system (see below), tram routes were gradually abandoned until the last urban tram—including the circuito histórico (historic district route)—closed in 1979.
In 1925, the wooden bus in which Frida Kahlo was traveling back to her home in Coyoacán was hit by a heavier metal tram, resulting in the severe accident that crippled the artist when she was only 18 years old.

The Metro System
After decades of relying on color-coded buses, the Mexico City Metro was first conceived in 1967. The first line opened in 1969, covering an initial route of 12.7 kilometers (7.9 miles). The system was built in response to the ever-increasing traffic of the mid-1950s, particularly in the downtown historic center, where it was often said to be faster to walk than to drive.
This rapid transit system is the second-largest in North America, following the New York City subway. As of 2015, it included 12 lines and 195 stations, with 115 of those stations underground. The deepest station lies 35 meters (115 feet) below ground. The Metro uses pneumatic (rubber) tires, which ensure a quieter and smoother ride compared to steel wheels. Many stations are named after historical figures or events, providing an educational experience along with transportation.
Engineering assistance for the Metro was provided by France, including the pneumatic technology. Construction occurred in seven phases, with the last phase completed in 2015. The design also accounted for earthquakes; rectangular structures were used instead of arches, which helped the system withstand the 8.0 earthquake of 1985 with minimal damage. During that event, the Metro was shut down to avoid electrocution and to allow for debris removal.
Excavation for the Metro yielded more than 20,000 archaeological findings, as well as fossils, including mammoth bones. During the construction of Stage 1 in the late 1960s, the Mexica Temple of Ehécatl was discovered near the future Pino Suárez station, requiring a complete redesign of the project.
You can buy a Metro Card at ticket booths and vending machines in the Metro station, from the machines in a Metrobús station, or from the ticket windows in the light rail stations. The Metro Card is rechargeable at those locations. If you have a Metro Card, you can use it for the Ecobici public bicycles – there are other ways to use the bikes, check them out on https://mexicocity.cdmx.gob.mx/e/getting-around/ecobici/.

Cablebús
Construction of an alternative public transportation system, Sistema de Transporte Público (also known as Cablebús), was announced on February 7, 2019, by then-Mayor of Mexico City and current President Claudia Sheinbaum. It began operation on July 11, 2021. This aerial cable car system features three lines and 19 stations, spanning a total of 24.75 kilometers (15.4 miles). It was developed primarily to relieve traffic congestion in high-density neighborhoods, although Line 3 offers scenic views of Chapultepec Park. The system is operated by Servicio de Transportes Eléctricos, the same agency that manages other branches of public transportation.
The fare is seven pesos ($0.34 USD), and children under five and adults over 70 ride for free. Tickets and prepaid passes are available at stations. Line 1 consists of 377 gondolas, each seating up to 10 people (weighing 75–80 kg or 165–176 lbs per person). The ride takes about 33 minutes at a speed of 21.6 kilometers (13.4 miles) per hour. Line 3 conveniently connects to Line 7 of the Metro system.

The detachable gondolas, manufactured by the Swiss company CWA Construction, feature foldable wooden seats that allow entry for bicycles and walkers. Ventilation systems are located in the lower part of the cabin, eliminating the need for air conditioning during the summer. Additionally, the gondolas include interior and exterior lighting, Wi-Fi, surveillance cameras, and anti-vandalism technology.
We plan to visit Mexico City in late February 2025 and will share our personal experience of using the Cablebús system. The views of the city from this modern, rapid, and efficient mode of transportation should be spectacular, especially on a clear day.

Huatulco

Tilcoatle: The Nice Snake vs. the Fer-de-Lance, the Not-So-Nice Snake

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By Julie Etra

How many ways are there to say “snake” in Spanish? The answer is three (or four, depending on interpretation): serpiente, culebra, víbora (which also refers to vipers, a specific type of snake, including pit vipers), and cascabel, which refers to rattlesnakes. On the Oaxacan coast, we’re home to many snakes. While over 170 species of reptiles exist here—including lizards—this article focuses on two specific snakes: the Tilcoatle (Drymarchon melanurus ssp. erebennus) and the Fer-de-Lance (Bothrops asper). The Tilcoatle is fascinating, while the Fer-de-Lance is equally so but thankfully absent from the Oaxacan coast.

Taxonomy: Understanding the Tilcoatle
The Tilcoatle, also known as the blacktail cribo or middle American indigo snake in English, goes by an impressive variety of names in Spanish: alicante, rey negra (king snake), ratonera negra (black rat killer), culebra arroyera (arroyo snake), babatúa, culebra azul (blue snake), zumbadora (buzzer), culebra prieta (brown snake), culebra negra (black snake), palancacoate, sabanera (savannah dweller), and sayama enjaquimada. Its scientific name originates from Greek: “Drymos” means “forest” and “archon” means “governor,” while “melano” translates to “black” and “urus” means “tail.”

Morphology and Physiology: The Tilcoatle’s Traits
The Tilcoatle is a large snake, measuring an average of 6.5 feet (2 meters) in length as an adult, with some specimens growing up to 3 meters. Its tail constitutes 20% of its overall length. This snake is a visual marvel, with smooth, shiny black scales and an underbelly that can be reddish or yellow. Juveniles often feature faint bands that fade as they mature. While it has teeth and a strong jaw, the Tilcoatle lacks fangs. It is diurnal, meaning it is active during the day, and shelters at night in holes among rocks, rotting roots, or burrows. Breeding occurs annually in winter, with females laying 4–12 eggs under rocks or roots, which hatch in about 80 days. Hatchlings can measure up to 26 inches (66 cm) and reach maturity in two to three years. Their lifespan averages 11 years.

Habitat and Diet: Where the Tilcoatle Thrives
The Tilcoatle is found from the southeastern United States to northern South America. Its adaptability allows it to thrive in various habitats, from forests to deserts. In Mexico, it often inhabits riparian and lacustrine areas and is particularly common around Lake Chapala in Jalisco.An active and voracious predator, the Tilcoatle preys on lizards, bats, rodents, fish, frogs, toads, carrion, and even other snakes, including rattlesnakes and its own species. It has been observed consuming Pituophis deppei (Mexican bull or pine snake) and nauyacas (Fer-de-Lance). The Tilcoatle’s method of predation is unique; rather than venom or constriction, it kills prey by breaking their bones with a powerful bite. Remarkably, its blood is resistant to rattlesnake venom but not to coral snake venom.

Defensive Behavior
Despite its size and predatory capabilities, the Tilcoatle is not aggressive. When threatened, it prefers to flee. Alternatively, it may take a defensive stance by contracting its body and whipping its tail against dry leaves, producing a sound similar to a rattlesnake’s warning. It also emits a foul-smelling odor from its cloaca as a further deterrent.

Myths and Legends Surrounding the Tilcoatle
The Tilcoatle is the subject of numerous myths. One tale suggests that the snake sneaks up on a nursing mother and her baby, sedates them with its breath and tail, and then drinks the mother’s milk, leaving the baby malnourished. Though untrue, this legend is widespread in Mexico, possibly originating in pre-Hispanic times when snakes were revered as deities like Quetzalcoatl, associated with fertility.Other myths claim that the Tilcoatle can deliver a painful whip-like injury with its tail (“chicotazo”). Supposedly, if killed, the snake’s stomach reveals a magical stone that becomes a talisman for the slayer. Some believe the best way to kill a Tilcoatle is by placing a machete upright in the ground so that the snake, striking out, injures itself fatally.Interestingly, the Tilcoatle lends its name to a local cooperative supporting musicians and cultural activities, including free performances at the Mercado Orgánico de Huatulco.

The Fer-de-Lance: A Cautionary Tale
The Fer-de-Lance, known as terciopelo (velvet) in Mexico, is scientifically named Bothrops asper. Its name combines Greek and Latin roots: “Bothros” (“pit”) and “ops” (“face”) refer to its heat-sensing pit organs, while “asper” means “rough.” In French, Fer-de-Lance translates to “spearhead.” This highly venomous pit viper ranges from southern Mexico to northern South America. Unlike the Tilcoatle, the Fer-de-Lance is nocturnal and thrives in moist environments near human habitation, where prey is abundant. Its lifespan is up to 20 years, and females are significantly larger than males.

A Deadly Reputation
The Fer-de-Lance is a dangerous snake with the ability to inject an average of 105 mg of venom per bite; recorded yields go up to 310 mg. As little as 50 mg is enough to kill a human. Its venom causes rapid necrosis, and even with antivenom treatment, survivors often face amputation. Described as unpredictable and excitable, the Fer-de-Lance can move quickly and reverse direction with alarming speed. In Costa Rica, it is responsible for 46% of snake bites and 30% of related hospitalizations. Symptoms of envenomation include severe swelling, bruising, blistering, fever, gastrointestinal bleeding, and even organ failure. Fatalities are often due to sepsis, brain hemorrhage, or kidney failure.

Reducing Fer-de-Lance Fatalities
The Clodomiro Picado Research Institute in Costa Rica has significantly reduced fatalities through antivenom production and venom research. Founded in 1970 by Dr. Clodomiro Picado Twight, the institute plays a vital role in saving lives across Central America.

Moral of the Story
While the Tilcoatle is a fascinating and generally harmless snake deserving of admiration and conservation, the Fer-de-Lance commands respect and caution. Give these creatures the wide berth they deserve, and appreciate them from a safe distance.

Huatulco

Mexico City’s Water Crisis

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By Julie Etra

Mexico City is facing a severe water crisis, a situation rooted in centuries of mismanagement dating back to the Spanish conquest of Tenochtitlan, now modern-day Mexico City. After the conquest, Tenochtitlan expanded into the five lakes that formed the closed basin of Mexico. These lakes, which had no natural outlet, varied in elevation and water quality. The Mexica (also known as the Aztecs) had successfully engineered the lakes by building a series of dikes and causeways starting in the 1420s, separating the brackish from fresh water.

Before 1466, fresh water was sourced from the springs at Chapultepec, accessed via canoes or trajineras (shallow-bottomed boats). During this time, the poet-engineer Nezahualcóyotl built the first aqueduct. However, the Spanish, inheriting a system they didn’t fully understand, began a series of drainage projects to dry what they considered a swamp. These efforts, combined with land-use changes such as grazing, cultivation, and deforestation, led to erosion and siltation. These projects, along with seasonal rains, couldn’t prevent periodic floods, which struck in 1555, 1580, 1607, 1615, and 1623. Despite persistent flooding, the Spanish refused to relocate to the mainland, convinced that the lake system could eventually be drained.

The first major engineering project came in 1607-1608, under the direction of Enrique Martinez. A tunnel was excavated to a low point in Nochistongo, called the Desagüe, but the plan failed. In the great flood of 1629, the only dry spot left was around the Zócalo (then known as the ‘island of the dogs’) where people sought refuge. The Catholic Church leaders, undeterred, even held mass on the rooftops. The floods lasted for five years, and the death toll reached over 30,000, largely due to disease in the unsanitary, muddy conditions. Despite these horrors, the Church and the government (which were essentially one and the same) justified staying on the island, minimizing the destruction in their reports to the King of Spain, instead of moving to the mainland.

The paradox continued into the 20th century with ever-larger engineering projects. In 1857, Francisco Garay was awarded a contract by the federal government to design a new system. His project included a 50 km tunnel from San Lázaro, east of the city, which channeled rivers and incorporated over 200 minor canals. The goal was not just to drain the basin, but also to provide irrigation for fields and create a waterway transportation system—a lofty vision that was never fully realized.

Under the regime of dictator Porfirio Díaz, the “Great Canal” was constructed at the end of the 19th century, abandoning Garay’s multi-purpose plan in favor of a more direct, single-minded effort to “conquer nature.” Between 1886 and 1900, the canal, 47 km long, with a 10 km tunnel, dams, and bridges, was built. Despite the scale of the project, the government could not overcome the topography, and flooding returned in the 1920s and again in 1945. By then, the canal’s flow had become nearly flat, and it filled with fine sediment. This required the construction of 11 pumping stations, a costly and inefficient solution.

Another attempt came in 1975, when an elaborate system of underground tunnels and pumps was installed at depths ranging from 88.5 ft. to 712 ft. (22 to 217 meters). The most recent infrastructure, built in 2019, included a massive 38-mile tunnel system meant to drain water away from the city.

Ironically, the water crisis in Mexico City today is one of scarcity rather than excess. The city, historically plagued by floods, now struggles with dwindling water supplies. About 30% of the city’s water needs are met by the Cutzamala system, an archaic network of dams, reservoirs, canals, and pumps. This system, one of the largest of its kind in the world, includes seven reservoirs, six pumping plants, 322 km of canals and tunnels, and a large water treatment plant. The main reservoirs—Villa Victoria, Valle de Bravo, and El Bosque—are located in the states of México and Michoacán, some 85 miles from the city, requiring an extensive network of pipes to deliver water to the capital. Currently, these reservoirs are at a historical low of just 30%. El Bosque, suffering from deforestation and urbanization, no longer contributes as it once did.

The rest of the city’s water comes from groundwater within the Mexico City Basin, which is being pumped out at twice the rate it is replenished. This groundwater is often contaminated and has caused ground subsidence in certain areas. Some buildings around the Zócalo, in particular, have started leaning due to this subsidence, according to a recent New York Times article. The pump system operates 24/7, posing a significant maintenance challenge. None of the water from the taps is potable, and the city relies on bottled water for drinking.

The situation has been worsened by prolonged droughts and the effects of climate change, although last summer’s rains provided some relief. Claudia Sheinbaum’s federal government has promised to address the issue with a national water initiative. As former mayor of Mexico City, Sheinbaum is familiar with the city’s aging infrastructure and its pressing water needs. She has stated that solving the water crisis is near the top of her agenda.

¡Muy complicado! ¡Suerte! (Very complicated, good luck!)
For more reading, check out this link: ‘Grist article on Claudia Sheinbaum and Mexico Citys water crisis

Huatulco

Exploring the film ¡Que viva México!

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By Julie Etra

When I stumbled upon this film, directed by the Russian filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein in the early 1930s and never completed, I was immediately engaged. Finally released in its unfinished form in 1978, it takes place in four geographic regions of Mexico not long after the Mexican Revolution, during the height of the Mexican muralists, and just prior to the golden age of Mexican cinema. It is narrated in Russian, with subtitles in English, by co-Director Grigory Alexandrov. During this epoch many intellectuals and artists associated with the European avant-garde movement were fascinated by Latin American culture, particularly Mexico, which they considered the embodiment of Surrealism.

The history of its conception, development, production, and resurrection is as interesting as the film. In 1929, a group of Soviet filmmakers headed by Eisenstein were invited to Hollywood to learn modern techniques of sound cinema and to produce a movie for Paramount Pictures. Eisenstein was well known and respected from his previous works, most famously Battleship Potemkin. Unable to reach an agreement with the Hollywood moguls, the American socialist and author Upton Sinclair and other well-connected intellectuals and artists in the United States, including the Mexican artists Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Clemente Orozco, suggested locating to Mexico. They envisioned an episodic portrayal of Mexican culture and politics from pre-Conquest civilization to the Mexican Revolution. In preparation for the six months of filming, the filmmakers spent two months of often arduous travel led by Rivera, Siqueiros, and Orozco, experiencing landscapes that would otherwise have been out of reach or not considered. Following production the film was returned to Hollywood where it languished until 1955 when Upton Sinclair donated the negative to the collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York.

The film starts with a Prologue that attempts to connect pre-Hispanic Mexico with the then contemporary version. Stark images and profiles of men and women mirroring the gods and sculptures of the great temples, imply the persistence of the indigenous culture, soul, and physical appearance despite the conquest, with death an ever-present theme.

The first vignette, Sandunga, takes place in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the area famous for its winds and the modern wind farm La Ventosa. The vignette opens with a bucolic, idyllic, and romanticized landscape, with the coconut palm trees swaying in the breeze. The story revolves around a young woman named Concepción who yearns for gold jewelry in the form of coins, joined in a necklace, as a symbol of status and coming of age. The plot, as it were, leads up to her wedding. Footage includes various scenes of women working in the markets, the fields, and over comals; for the most part men are absent, at least for the work, although all the musicians in the wedding party are men. The party scenes are rich with cultural details such as toddlers and baby goats under the feet of the partying dancers. It culminates with the wedding. It ends with the following subtitle ‘That’s how the unhurried semi-vegetable life goes on in this tropical part of Mexico’, with the palm fronds bending in the wind, the husband in the hammock, and Concepción handing him the baby boy. La Sandunga or Zandunga is a Mexican waltz and the regional anthem of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. This song is covered by numerous vocalists; my favorite version is by Lila Downs.

The second vignette shows the splendid Festival of the Virgin of Guadalupe. Catholic Church luminaries oversee the reenactment of the Passion of Christ and the procession of the penitents crawling up the stairs to the church, which was most likely built on a pyramid, and lots of depictions of death. The festival continues with pre-Hispanic costumes including masks and feathers, with music and dancing that lasted unabated for 24 hours, highlighting pre-conquest culture. There are zero women in this footage. It ends with a weird transition to a bullfight featuring the famous bullfighter David Liceaga. The questionable connection to the festival is the bullfighters’ prayers to the Virgin prior to the spectacle of the bullfight. As part of this same vignette, we then see couples and families enjoying the trajineras of Xochimilco, the flat-bottomed boats that traverse the shallow water of the former lake, featuring Liceaga accompanied with women serenading and fawning over him.

Most troubling, to me, is the third vignette which takes place prior to the Revolution and during the Dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz on a large hacienda in the state of Hidalgo, it depicts the stark disparity between the ruling class and the working peons (agrarian reform was central to the Revolution). It takes place on a Maguey (Agave) plantation, Tetlapayac, where the milky liquid pulque is extracted from the plant and then fermented to produce pulque.

It is hard, endless work for the pulqueros. Maria, betrothed to pulquero Sebastian, is raped by a drunk guest at the hacienda during a welcoming party for the returning daughter of the patron, and as Sebastian tries to escort her, he is roughed up and kicked out while she is locked up, with a guard at the door. Sebastian, with his coconspirators, attempts to free Maria. On foot and armed with stolen weapons, they are hunted down by an armed and well-mounted posse into the rough landscape. During the commotion the daughter of the patron is fatally shot. Sebastian and his two friends meet a tortured, bloody end while the surviving coconspirator watches and Maria is freed only to discover her dead fiancé. The filming, by cinematographer Eduard Tisse, the juxtapositions, shadows and contrasts, are exquisite.

In the Epilogue, Alexandrov explains that the last novella, Soldadera (soldier), about the Revolution, was never completed as the filmmakers ran out of money and returned home. The Soldaderas were the wives of the soldiers; they accompanied the army and supported the men in various capacities.

It ends with Day of the Dead celebrations, at first in the cemetery, with death everywhere, symbolized by an abundance of skulls, a recurring theme that connects the vignettes. ‘The day begins with laments for the dead’ and continues with feasting at the cemetery. The last scene is a bustling carnival with dancers and performers in death masks dancing the Mexican Hat Dance, surrounded by their masked audience. When the audience removes their masks, we see the faces of Mexico: children.

Huatulco

Atole y más

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By Julie Etra

Atole is a prehispanic corn-based beverage consumed throughout Mesoamerica and South America, albeit in different forms and with varying ingredients. The word atole is derived from the náhuatl word atolli , which means “watered down” or watery, due to its root of “atl” = water. It is synonymous with atol as it is also called in Mexico, Spain, and Venezuela.

The Purépecha, indigenous people of the northwestern Mexican state of Michoacan, call it kamata. In Mayan it is known as sa’, in Costa Rica it is called chicheme and champurrado in Peru and Argentina. Its basic ingredient is milled corn or corn flour. In prehispanic times it was likely prepared with water, and perhaps honey, but with the conquering Spaniards came sugar, added as a sweetener. Of moderate viscosity from cornstarch, atole was historically prepared as hot as possible.

Ingredients
Other contemporary additions to the basic beverage include milk, honey, piloncillo (see below) cinnamon, vanilla and other sweeteners, such as fruit juice or fruit pulp. There are dozens of ‘recipes’ with additional ingredients as variable in flavor and texture as chiles, epazote, blackberry, plum, mango, coconut, walnut, and cheese. In Colombia eggs are added.

Piloncillo
As an interesting aside, Mexico produces a type of sugar called piloncillo. With its origins in Asia, sugar cane crossed the Mediterranean, landing in the Iberian Peninsula, and from there brought from Spain to the Island of Hispaniola, (modern day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), by Christopher Columbus; sugar mills and refineries were operating on Hispaniola by 1516.

Piloncillo is commonly found in the produce section. It is brown, cone-shaped unprocessed raw sugarcane. The canes are crushed, the juice extracted and boiled to create a thick syrup which is then poured into molds where it hardens. Currently (and historically), the largest producer of piloncillo in Mexico is San Luis Potosí where it was originally cultivated by the Spaniards, although the states of Veracruz, Quintana Roo, Nayarit, Jalisco, Hidalgo and Colima are also producers.

Pinole
Atole should not be confused with pinole although they rhyme. Pinole is a grain mixture, made predominantly of heirloom blue and purple maize that’s roasted with raw cacao beans, then ground into a fine mixture (yes, cacao is native to Mexico). It’s most commonly combined with milk to form a thick, warm porridge. In addition to cacao it is mixed with a combination of cinnamon, chia seeds, vanilla, or other spices, to make a beverage called pinolillo.

Champurrado
In Mexico, Champurrado is atole with chocolate, although masa (the same dough used for tortillas) is used instead of harina.

Chilate, Arroz, and Horchata
Atole should not be confused with another beverage, chilate, from Costa Chica, Guerrero. This beverage is prepared with cocoa, rice, cinnamon, and sugar, and is served cold. It is not to be confused with chilate in Central American countries such as Guatemala, where its base is corn. Rice, a component of this and other beverages like horchata, arrived after the Spanish conquest. Rice, of Asian origin, arrived in Mexico via the port of Acapulco, Guerrero, shortly after the Spanish conquest of the Philippines in 1565 by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (Spain ruled the Philippines for over 333 years). Approximately forty years later Spanish ships known as the Manila Galleons brought rice to Mexico from the Philippines. Remember, dear readers, the fall of Mexico occurred in 1521.

Mexico does grow some of its own rice for domestic consumption, but the majority is imported from the United States. The popular beverage horchata comes from North Africa which was brought to the Iberian Peninsula with the Moorish conquest of Spain in the eighth century.

Pox
Pox (pronounced “posh”), comes from the Mayan people of the Chiapas Highlands. It is a distilled, but weakly alcoholic beverage whose ingredients include water, sugar cane, corn, piloncillo and wheat bran, as well as a variety of herbs, such as mint, lemon grass, rosemary, and bay leaf, or the pulp of seasonal fruits. It is known for its silky consistency.

In addition to previously mentioned ingredients, anise, orange blossoms, orange leaves, and pineapple can be added to the basic recipe.

Here is a popular recipe for Atole de Piña:

Ingredients
·5 oz masa
11 oz pineapple pulp
·2 cups cubed pineapple

Preparation
·Stir the masa in 4 cups of water. Let stand for 15 minutes, then strain the water and set it aside. In a blender puree the pineapple in 1 ½ cups of water. Strain and set the pineapple water aside.

In a saucepan combine the strained masa water and the pineapple water and set over medium heat. Boil, stirring constantly for 15 minutes or until thickened.
Remove from heat, add the pineapple cubes, and stir for another 5 minutes. Serve hot.

What about those pineapples? Not imported by the Spaniards, pineapples most likely originated in the wild in the Paraná–Paraguay River drainages between southern Brazil and Paraguay and are thought to have been domesticated over 6,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence of pineapple use dates back to 1200–800 BCE in Peru and 200 BCE – 700 CE in Mexico, where it was cultivated by the Mayans and the Mexica (Aztecs) By the late 1400s, pineapples were a staple food of indigenous populations throughout Mesoamerica.

Atole in Religious Ritual.
Atole is considered indispensable in many religious events and Catholic ceremonies, including baptisms, first communion, wakes, patron saint celebrations, and posadas (see EYE archives December 2014 for a good description of a posada:
https://theeyehuatulco.com/2014/12/01/christmas-in-mexico-city-how-to-celebrate-it-like-a-chilango). In many indigenous communities it is an offering in prayer for a good corn harvest or one of thanks following a good one. Of course, corn, a staple and essential component of Mexican diets, has been worshiped for thousands of years, and atole is its liquid manifestation (see EYE archives for multiple articles on corn).

Today, the types of flavors that accompany atole are varied and regional, but it remains an original Mexican concoction.