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Huatulco, San Miguel de Allende

The Politics of Corn: Who Owns Mexico’s Corn?

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By Estefanía Camacho—

For decades, Mexicans have embraced the catchy phrase “sin maíz no hay país” (“without corn, there is no country”), reflecting the idea that corn is indeed everywhere, perhaps as widespread as the nopal cactus, and has long been a vital source of nourishment.
Although the phrase was probably never meant to suggest that the country would literally cease to exist if corn disappeared, the ancient Maya would likely have agreed with its underlying message. According to the Popol Vuh, the sacred book of the Maya, which many Mexican students start studying in their early school years, the first humans successfully created by the gods were made of corn. Thus, humankind came to inhabit the Earth. For thousands of years, corn has shaped Mexico’s identity. Today, however, the question is no longer simply where corn comes from, but who controls its future.

The Decree That Started It All
Since 2018, Mexico’s left-wing governments have gained considerable public support by seeking to prohibit the cultivation and consumption of genetically modified corn, heeding warnings from a range of experts. The story continued with a presidential decree issued in February 2023.

As part of President Andrés Manuel López Obrador’s broader agenda on food sovereignty and national self-sufficiency, the Mexican government announced a series of measures concerning genetically modified corn and glyphosate. The decree framed native corn not simply as an agricultural commodity, but as part of Mexico’s biocultural heritage worthy of protection.

The policy prohibited the use of genetically modified corn in dough and tortillas, foods considered central to the Mexican diet. Officials argued that the measure would not disrupt trade because Mexico was already self-sufficient in the production of non-GM white corn, the variety traditionally used for tortillas. Mexico had never authorized the commercial cultivation of genetically modified corn within its territory, although that prohibition had not yet been enshrined in the Constitution.

The decree further distinguished corn according to its intended use, separating grain destined for direct human consumption from corn used for animal feed and industrial food production.

Finally, Mexico’s Federal Commission for the Protection against Sanitary Risks (COFEPRIS) was instructed to continue evaluating the potential health effects of genetically modified corn. U.S. officials, however, argued that the restrictions were not supported by sufficient scientific evidence.

Washington viewed the decree as a trade barrier that threatened billions of dollars in U.S. agricultural exports. The dispute ultimately reached the USMCA’s dispute settlement mechanism, and in December 2024 the panel ruled in favor of the United States.
Mexico complied with the ruling in February 2025 by eliminating the provisions restricting the use of genetically modified corn in tortillas, processed foods, and animal feed. Importantly, however, the decision did not authorize its cultivation.

Instead, President Claudia Sheinbaum responded by pursuing a constitutional amendment explicitly banning the cultivation of genetically modified corn in Mexico. In effect, Mexico accepted the panel’s ruling on imports and commercial use while simultaneously reinforcing its prohibition on growing genetically modified corn within its own borders.

The Industrialization of the Tortilla
The government’s argument rested on a simple premise: Mexico produces enough white corn to supply its tortillas. Technically, that is true. The tortilla market is dominated by surprisingly few companies.

Modern tortilla production is dominated by industrial flour manufacturers, above all Gruma, the parent company of Maseca, and its main competitor, Minsa—both founded in 1949 and today the country’s dominant producers of nixtamalized corn flour. Nixtamalization is the ancestral process of cooking corn kernels with an alkaline substance, transforming the resulting corn and improving its nutritional properties.

Gruma’s transformation began that same year, when businessman Roberto González Gutiérrez and his son, Roberto González Barrera, purchased equipment capable of milling dried nixtamal into flour, industrializing a process that had traditionally taken place in homes and neighborhood tortillerías.

The industry’s real technological leap came in 1965, when engineer Manuel Rubio joined the company and developed a machine capable of producing roughly 600 tortillas per minute, dramatically increasing production efficiency. From there, Gruma expanded well beyond Mexico. Today the company holds dozens of patents related to industrial corn flour and tortilla production and has become one of the world’s largest tortilla manufacturers.

Its expansion into the United States required an unusual strategy. Because Mexican manufacturing technology faced import restrictions at the time, Gruma entered the American market by acquiring an existing U.S. company instead. Government support also played an important role in the company’s early growth. A loan backed by the governor of Nuevo León helped finance its expansion, while Roberto González Barrera would eventually become one of Mexico’s most influential businessmen until his death in 2012.
Although the López Obrador administration was correct in stating that Mexico is largely self-sufficient in white corn production, much of the country’s industrial tortilla market depends on these two companies.

However, Minsa is chaired by businesswoman Altagracia Gómez, who also serves as an adviser to President Claudia Sheinbaum. The overlap between Gómez’s public advisory role and her leadership of one of Mexico’s largest corn flour companies has attracted public scrutiny, particularly as debates over corn policy and food sovereignty continue.

In 2025, Minsa received a government contract worth approximately 346 million pesos. At the same time, independent farmers have continued calling on federal authorities to help market roughly 700,000 tons of domestically produced white corn that remain difficult to sell at profitable prices.

How NAFTA Shaped Trade and Agricultural Abandonment
The struggle over corn is no longer simply about who grows it, but who controls its processing, pricing, and distribution. The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), known in Mexico as the T-MEC, is the successor to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which entered into force in 1994. For many Mexican economists, the country’s growing dependence on imported grain started back then. While NAFTA dramatically reshaped trade across North America, its greatest emphasis fell on manufacturing industries such as the automotive sector. Mexican agriculture, many scholars argue, never occupied the same place in the negotiations.

The agreement was renegotiated at Washington’s request in 2017 and eventually replaced by the USMCA, which introduced updated provisions on labor rights, digital trade, and dispute settlement while preserving the region’s broader commitment to free trade.
Researchers at UNAM’s Institute for Economic Research argue that decades of public disinvestment in Mexican agriculture, driven by neoliberal economic policies that prioritized industrial and service sectors, gradually weakened domestic food production. In their view, the erosion of the countryside was not simply an economic consequence but a structural political choice, one that left Mexico increasingly dependent on agricultural imports despite corn’s central place in the country’s economy, culture, and diet.
Against that backdrop, the 2023 decree became far more than a disagreement over genetically modified corn. It evolved into a test of how far Mexico could go in protecting what it considers both a strategic crop and a cultural heritage while remaining bound by its international trade commitments.

Mexico’s dependence on imported yellow corn has grown steadily
If white corn largely remains a domestic crop tied to tortillas, yellow corn tells a very different story.

Mexico’s dependence on imported yellow corn has grown steadily since the implementation of NAFTA, with most imports now consisting of genetically modified grain produced in the United States. The vast majority is destined not for tortillas but for livestock feed and industrial uses.

That trade is dominated by multinational grain companies including Cargill, Archer Daniels Midland (ADM), Bartlett Grain, Scoular, and the Chinese state-owned giant COFCO. These firms purchase grain from American producers, import it through their Mexican subsidiaries, and sell it to the country’s largest livestock operations.
Together, they account for the overwhelming majority of the approximately 17.5 million metric tons of yellow corn imported annually from the United States, according to Mexico’s Agricultural Markets Consulting Group (GCMA).

Even so, Mexico then imports roughly 650,000 metric tons of white corn each year. According to La Jornada, much of that grain is purchased by Maseca and Minsa for direct human consumption through the flour industry. Critics argue that industrial corn flour may not provide the same nutritional and culinary qualities as tortillas made from freshly nixtamalized native corn. The debate, however, extends beyond nutrition. It also centers on the long-term health effects of consuming genetically modified corn, as well as the environmental consequences of introducing transgenic varieties into Mexico’s centers of origin.

Why Is It Important to Keep Reexamining Mexico’s Anti-GMO Policy?
Ana Wegier, a researcher at the Botanical Garden of UNAM’s Institute of Biology, has warned in an op-ed published by Nexos magazine that genetically modified seeds and pollen can spread easily and mix with wild plants and native varieties despite existing restrictions.

“Today, unauthorized transgenes exist in the centers of origin of corn and cotton, and they are virtually impossible to remove,” she explains, shedding light on Mexico’s seemingly unwavering position on genetically modified organisms and corn.

At the same time, advances in biotechnology—including techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9—make it possible to explore gene editing without necessarily introducing DNA from an unrelated species. This approach could increase corn’s protein content, beneficial compounds, and vitamin levels. It is perhaps the kind of tool our ancestors would have wanted as they worked toward developing the best possible corn varieties.

One of the expert opinions submitted during the dispute came from Michael Antoniou, professor of Molecular Genetics and Toxicology at King’s College London. In his report, Antoniou argued that Mexico’s dietary patterns warranted a different level of scrutiny than those typically considered by U.S. regulators.

Because corn constitutes a much larger share of the Mexican diet and is frequently consumed in minimally processed forms such as tortillas, he suggested that potential exposure to glyphosate residues, pesticides, and transgenic proteins could be substantially higher than in the United States.

Antoniou also noted that directly testing these potential risks in humans would be ethically impossible, making long-term animal feeding studies particularly important. He cited research reporting adverse effects in some genetically modified corn feeding trials, while acknowledging that the interpretation of those findings remains the subject of scientific debate. His report ultimately argued that the available evidence justified applying the precautionary principle in countries like Mexico, where corn is consumed daily as a staple food rather than as a minor ingredient.
Wegier and other researchers emphasize that Indigenous farmers have developed extraordinary maize diversity through selective breeding over thousands of years, without reliance on herbicide-resistant transgenic systems.

Ultimately, the debate over genetically modified corn is about much more than agriculture. It asks who will determine the future of one of Mexico’s oldest inheritances: Indigenous communities who have cultivated native varieties for millennia, farmers struggling to remain competitive, multinational grain companies, industrial flour producers, or governments negotiating international trade agreements. In Mexico, corn has never been just a crop. It is culture, identity, livelihood, and sovereignty.

Estefanía Camacho is a freelance Mexican journalist working across media and digital magazines. She is a specialist in gender, SMEs, economics, and business.

Huatulco

The Sacred Kernel: A 10,000-Year Dialogue with Oaxacan Maize

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By Nancy Reyes—

Mexico is often misunderstood by those looking in from the outside. For many, the country exists as a postcard: bright colors, mariachis on every corner, sombreros, tequila, and an endless fiesta. This image has become so exaggerated that it often borders on parody, reducing a land of immense depth to a handful of clichés. But as we at The Eye strive to show, the reality is much more layered. To truly understand the soul of Mexico—and specifically the enduring spirit of Oaxaca—one must look past the surface of the sun-drenched beaches and into the steaming clay pots of its kitchens. There, you will find the absolute foundation of daily life: corn.

If we trace the history of the peoples of this region by the domestication of maize 10,000 years ago, we would see a culture that spent millennia as Zapotec, Mixe, or Nahua long before the concept of “Indian” or “Indigenous” was imposed by colonial hierarchies. This is not just a crop; it is a living expression of geography, agriculture, and tradition. To understand why corn is considered sacred, one must look at the ancient stories that still resonate in the collective memory of the land.

The Legend of Corn: Quetzalcoatl’s Ingenuity

Before the arrival of the Spanish, according to an Aztec legend, the people fed only on the roots of plants and the animals they managed to hunt each day. Their greatest desire was to eat corn, but the golden grain grew hidden behind high, steep mountains that were impossible to cross.

The people begged the gods for help. Many of the deities, wanting to show their power, tried to separate the gigantic mountains using brute strength. They pushed and pulled with all their might, but the peaks would not budge. Time passed, and the people grew desperate. They turned to the great god Quetzalcoatl, begging him to find a way to reach the corn so they could make food to sustain their children.

Quetzalcoatl, unlike the other gods, did not want to rely on strength alone. He was a god of intelligence and ingenuity. He watched the mountains and noticed the tiny creatures that moved through the smallest crevices. To the amazement of the people, Quetzalcoatl transformed himself into a small black ant.

Without wasting a moment, he invited a red ant to accompany him on the arduous journey. For days, the two tiny insects climbed the steep, jagged slopes until they reached the snowy summit. Exhausted but determined, they descended the other side, and there they found them: the golden ears of corn the people so longed for.

They approached the most appetizing ear and extracted a single yellow kernel. Together, they began the return journey, holding the sun-colored grain firmly in their tiny mandibles. The return was even more exhausting; the load was incredibly heavy for their small bodies, and their legs buckled with every step. Yet, they refused to lose that precious cargo.

When they finally arrived back, breathless and nearly crawling, the Aztecs welcomed them with a great celebration. Quetzalcoatl gave the grain of corn to the people who rushed to plant it with immense care. In a short time, the first plant sprouted, followed by many others that eventually populated the fields. From then on, the Aztecs were able to feed their children, who grew up healthy and strong. In gratitude, they began to worship Quetzalcoatl, who became their most beloved god for all time.

The Marvel of the Tortilla

This legend mirrors a deeper truth: the survival of the Mexican people has always depended on a symbiotic relationship with nature. For thousands of years, indigenous communities refined maize varieties adapted to the region’s unique climates and soils. But the true brilliance lies in the ancient technological achievement known as nixtamalization.

By soaking the dried corn in an alkaline solution (usually water mixed with lime or wood ash) before grinding it into masa, ancient cultures transformed a simple grain into a far more nutritious and sustaining food. This process makes niacin more bioavailable, increases calcium, and improves the nutritional value of the corn. From this masa comes the tortilla, the foundation of daily life throughout Mexico.

Visitors to Oaxaca are often surprised by the sensory shift of a true handmade tortilla. Unlike the uniform, flattened versions found in supermarkets, fresh masa pressed and cooked on a hot comal produces a tortilla that puffs slightly, releasing a warm, toasted aroma of the earth itself. It is a small, quiet moment that reveals how deeply food and culture are intertwined.

This commitment to the land is also reflected in a philosophy of wasting nothing. Leftover tortillas are not discarded; they are transformed into chilaquiles, a beloved breakfast dish where corn chips (totopos) are coated in salsa and topped with cream and cheese. It is a celebration of creativity and respect for what we already have.

In Mexico, we have a beloved saying: “Panza llena, corazón contento”—a full belly makes for a happy heart. As you navigate the diverse and complex flavors of our region, I hope you discover more than just a meal. May you leave with a deeper appreciation for the land, the people, and the traditions that continue to shape Oaxaca today.

Nancy Reyes is a writer, teacher, and passionate advocate of Mexican culture.

Nancy’s Top Three Places to Eat
To help you navigate this rich landscape, here are my personal recommendations for a meaningful culinary connection in our region:

El Sabor de Oaxaca (La Crucecita, Huatulco) Located just off the main square, this family-run restaurant has been a trusted bridge to authentic flavors since 1994. It is my favorite spot for a traditional meal where the heritage of Oaxaca is served with pride. Whether you are trying their deep, dark mole or handmade tortillas, you are tasting a story of consistency and local love.

Entre Tierras (Huatulco) For those seeking deeper immersion, I recommend this intimate 8-course culinary adventure. Each course is crafted by Chef Jane Bauer using local ingredients shaped by the seasons. Held on Friday nights at the Chiles & Chocolate Cooking School, this dinner is not just a meal; it is a quiet story of land, labor, and migration. http://www.entretierrashuatulco.com

Casa Semilla (Pluma Hidalgo) When the coastal heat builds and you need a change of pace, head an hour up into the mountains to Pluma Hidalgo. Start your day at Casa Semilla, a community hub known for its freshly roasted high-altitude coffee and healthy meals made with local ingredients. Their commitment to disability inclusion and nourishment makes every bite feel like part of a larger, positive movement in the Sierra Madre del Sur.

Huatulco

Seven Regions of Mexican Flavors

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By Brooke O’Connor

When someone asks about Mexican food, the iconic taco springs to mind (see the article by the Chaikens elsewhere in this issue). While tortillas are served everywhere throughout Mexico, and provide the basis of some dishes, Mexican cuisine itself varies sharply by region, and offers much more. The regions vary – there might in fact be a dozen distinct Mexican cuisines. When we see a dish described as a la Veracruzana or Oaxaqueña, what does that mean?

With each cuisine comes history and culture – another example of how diverse and colorful Mexico is.

OAXAQUEÑO

Starting close to home, the state of Oaxaca offers a unique cuisine that can’t be mistaken for any other region. Apart from being known as “The Land of Seven Moles” (more on mole later), Oaxaca produces cheese, chocolate and mezcal.

Because of the diversity of Oaxaca’s climates, and 17 different indigenous groups with their own cooking traditions, Oaxaqueños are proud of their cultural cuisine. They represent the most pre-Hispanic traditions in Mexico, and many families cherish recipes handed down for thousands of years.

What Is Mole, Anyway?

Mole comes from the Náhuatl word mōlli meaning “sauce.” It refers to a family of sauces and not one recipe. There are hundreds of mole recipes throughout Mexico. In Oaxaca alone, there are over 200 known mole preparations. Some are quite complicated, made with over two dozen ingredients like chili peppers, fruits, nuts, seeds, cacao beans, and spices.

It should be noted that the next-door state of Puebla also claims to be the birthplace of mole. Here are seven well-known moles oaxaqueños.

Mole negro (black), perhaps the most popular mole, contains 20-30 ingredients – including chocolate – and is sweet, savory and very rich. Mole Rojo (red) is sweet, savory, and rich like mole negro, but has other flavors like guajillo and pasillo chiles, tomatoes, almonds, peanuts, sesame seeds, and spices. Mole amarillo (yellow) is much lighter, less rich and contains things like green tomatoes, ancho and guajillo chili peppers, hoja santa, and spices. Mole verde (green) includes green chili peppers, tomatillos, pepitas (pumpkin seeds), hoja santa, epazote, and other leafy greens.

Mole coloradito (reddish) includes ancho chili peppers, garlic, tomatoes, sesame seeds, and spices. Mole manchamanteles (tablecloth stainer) is named because of the bright red chorizo grease and ancho chili peppers used in the recipe, but also includes tomatoes, onions, garlic, almonds, plantains, and fresh pineapple. Mole chichilo (made from chilhuacle chile peppers) is also rare; it is similar in color to black mole but not quite as thick, and it’s the only mole among the seven that’s flavored with beef.

Oaxaca is famous for some other dishes. Tlayudas are large, thin, crunchy, partially fried or toasted tortillas, covered with a spread of asiento (lard melted to grease), refried beans, lettuce or cabbage, avocado, meat, Oaxacan cheese, and salsa. Memelas are fried or toasted cakes made of masa topped with different fresh ingredients. An empanada de amarillo is a handmade corn tortilla folded over and stuffed with chicken and yellow mole. Enmoladas are essentially enchiladas covered in mole sauce. A tetela is a triangular empanada or quesadilla that predates the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Garnachas istmeñas, coming from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, are crispy, thin masa cakes with finely ground beef and pickled cabbage. Caldo de piedra is a famous soup of fish and shrimp soup, heated with hot river rocks. (Don’t eat the rock). Tamales oaxaqueños are filled with cornmeal encasing shredded meat and mole sauce, then wrapped with banana leaves and cooked.

Some miscellaneous Oaxacan specialties include chapulines, grasshoppers of the genus Sphenarium, toasted on a comal with or without spices (see the article by Kary Vannice elsewhere in this issue). Nicuatole is a pre-Columbian gelatinous dessert made from ground maize and sugar. Pan de yema is a rich, sugar-coated egg bread; and Oaxaca’s coffee and chocolate are both highly prized.

YUCATECO

After Oaxaca, the cuisine of the Yucatán Peninsula is recognized for the variety and originality of its cuisine. There are culinary influences from Africa, the Caribbean, and the Middle East; Yucateco cuisine is unique in its use of spices like cumin and allspice, and herbs like large-leafed Yucatecan oregano. They also make seasoning pastes with ingredients unique to the Yucatán.

It’s interesting to note that the people of Yucatán Peninsula, which comprises the states of Campeche, Quintana Roo, and Yucatán, consider themselves a bit set apart from the rest of Mexico. Probably due to geographic position, they have been culturally isolated and have their own unique ways and beliefs. Many locals consider themselves “Yucateco” as readily as “Mexicano.”

This is where we get cochinita pibil (roast pork marinated in achiote and orange, cooked in an underground oven called a píib), panuchos and salbutes (types of tostadas), sopa de lima (tortilla soup with lime), tzik de venado (shredded venison salad), and pavo en escabeche (pickled turkey).

NORTEÑO

Nearly half of Mexico is considered northern territory, and Tex Mex border food got its inspiration from this region. States considered norteño are Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Nuevo Leon, all on the border; Sinaloa is on the lower Sea of Cortez, and Durango is landlocked right next door.

We find meat, particularly beef, with very large white flour tortillas and rice everywhere. Pinto beans and Spanish rice are common side dishes. There is also some seafood near the coast, and roast cabrito (baby goat). Nachos and burritos originated here, as well as caldo de queso (simple soup featuring potatoes, green chiles, chicken broth, and cheese) and aguachile (a type of ceviche of fresh raw shrimp, cucumber, red onion, lime juice, and water-pulverized chilis).

Sonora produces coyotas, which are traditional cookies made from flour dough and filled with piloncillo, an unrefined brown sugar. The coyota is named for a female coyote; the term is also slang for a female of mixed Indian and Spanish heritage.

VERACRUZANO

The state of Veracruz lies along the Gulf of Mexico, where the port city of Veracruz is located; the state capital, Jalapa/Xalapa, is high in the mountains. Veracruzano cuisine gives seafood a leading role. There are heavy Caribbean, Mediterranean, and African influences in the traditional dishes. This is also the home of the beloved jalapeño pepper; it is believed that vanilla originated here as well.

In many veracruzano dishes, you can find capers and olives, which rarely appear in the rest of Mexico. Pescado a la veracruzana is fish, particularly huachinango – red snapper – with tomatoes, capers, and olives. Other Veracruzano seafood dishes are arroz a la tumbada (a type of thick saucy paella), chilpachole (thick seafood soup), and acamayas (a shrimplike river crustacean often prepared al mojo de ajo).

Not to be missed if you see it on a menu in Veracruz is mole de Xico – Xico is a city in central Veracruz, the mole from Xico is very rich and sweet.

POBLANO

The state of Puebla produces two of Mexico’s most iconic dishes: mole poblano (an especially complex sauce of dried chiles, chocolate, nuts and seeds) and chiles en nogada (picadillo-stuffed chiles with a walnut sauce and pomegranate seeds – see Julie Etra’s article elsewhere in this issue). There are also cemitas and chanclas (Poblano tortas, or cakes, the latter soaked in salsa), chiles capones (simple cheese-stuffed chiles). Puebla also gives the U.S. one of its most popular Mexican dishes, chiles rellenos (again, see Julie Etra’s article).

Puebla is also famous for its soups: sopa poblano (a smoky chili soup), chileatole verde (broth and chiles thickened with masa), and sopa de hongos y poblano (made with mushrooms, roasted and diced poblano chili peppers, corn, tomatoes, chipotles, epazote, onions, garlic, and zucchini flowers)

JALISCENSE

The state of Jalisco is particularly proud. They have a saying that translates to “Jalisco is Mexico,” because many things we would recognize as traditional Mexican culture originate here – tequila, the rodeo and mariachi bands.

The variety of geography from coastline, snow covered peaks, and the largest freshwater lake in the country allow for a variety of foods. The most well known may be birria (chile-stewed goat or lamb), torta ahogada (the Mexican style French dip – ahogado means drowned), caldo michi (a fish soup), pacholas (a ground meat patty with chili), pozole rojo de Jalisco (a broth-based soup with posole [white corn or hominy], vegetables and a variety of meat and condiments).

BAJA CALIFORNIANO

Last but not least, let’s not forget that the state of California was Mexican land until 1848. So much of what is considered Cali-Mex cuisine is in actuality a fusion of norteño and Baja traditional cuisine.

There are unexpected influences here of Russian and Chinese immigrants. Moreover, Japanese colonies established the fishing industry in Ensenada and even today, fish and shellfish from these waters are sold to Japan’s global auction market.

Caesar salad and margaritas originated here. Seafood is all around you, so you’ll find an abundance of tacos of tempura fish and shrimp, ceviches, grilled lobster, and seafood cocktails. This area now also boasts vineyards, cheese and olives.

Wherever you travel in Mexico there are bound to be delicious food, hearty smiles and gregarious hospitality. However, I’ve found making a point of eating the traditional food, in the areas where it originated, is particularly satisfying.

There is one caveat. Unless you are a connoisseur of salsas, and have a craving for surprises, it is better to ask how spicy hot the salsa or sauce is. Some salsas are made to be used in very small quantities, while others are to be used liberally all over the plate. I often ask, Este nivel de picante es adecuado para los niños? (Is this spice level ok for kids?) Asked with a smile, people are happy to guide me in the right direction.

Huatulco

Tortillas, Women and Circles

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By Brooke O’Connor

It’s impossible to think about Mexican food without immediately thinking about tortillas, whether made with flour or variously colored corn. A legend says tortillas were invented by a humble peasant to feed a hungry king. We have records of corn tortillas being made as far back as 10,000 BCE. Why have they been a staple of the Americas and how have women making tortillas become such an important part of society?

First, let’s look at the making of tortillas. Traditionally, dried corn is cooked in lime water. Not limes from trees, but an alkaline bath made with wood ash and/or white lime powder from the earth. This process creates a chemical reaction releasing the bioavailability of B vitamins, particularly vitamin B3, which is not widely present in traditional vegetable-based diets. Boiling in this water also increases the mineral uptake such as calcium, iron, copper, and zinc by hundreds of percentage points. After the corn is boiled for at least 90 minutes, the skins can be slipped off and the corn can be ground into masa and used for tortillas, or other bases for foods like tamales or sopes.

This process is called nixtamalization, coming from the Aztec language Nahuatal word nextli “lime ashes” and tamalli “unformed/cooked corn dough.”

We don’t know how the process was discovered, but we think it goes something like this. People in the Americas didn’t have metal cooking vessels in 10,000 BCE, and the traditional pottery was not strong enough to cook directly on hot coals or fire. The earthenware pots were elevated above the fire, then hot stones were put into the pot (with the food) to increase the temperature and cook food thoroughly. Limestone is an easily attained and abundant resource in the Americas, so it the heated rocks were generally pieces of limestone. The lime leaching into the water created the nixtamalization, but a side effect was better flavor and aroma in the cornmeal (masa). Soon it became clear that cooking with limestone versus other stones created a superior product, so this became the standard. Most likely the stones were heated in the wood ash underneath the pot, and some ash was likely to enter the food as well. Savvy cooks experimented with various amounts of ash and stone until they achieved the desired flavor.

Once the corn was made into masa, small round balls were flattened by hand, and laid over a large concave piece of pottery called a comal. The comal was treated with a thick layer of limestone dissolved in water, creating a non-stick coating. This would leave a light additional dusting of calcium on every tortilla, making it even more nutritious. Periodically the limestone would be washed onto the comal again, and tortillas naturally slid off the cooking surface, using only fingers. Much safer and longer lasting than the non-stick pans we have today, despite all the advantages of modern chemistry and manufacturing.

Because cooking was traditionally a woman’s chore, tortilla-making was an essential women’s role in Mexican society, but not given much importance. It was just another job in the kitchen. It evolved into micro-businesses for women who developed a particular flair for their nixtamalization process. The skilled tortilla maker began selling to other women, freeing them up to concentrate on other things.

As the industrial revolution hit Mexico, the “wage gap” between women and men became more of a “wage chasm.” However, because tortilla making was not mechanized, it remained an industry owned and run by women. It was an essential strategy used by women of the era to maintain some form of autonomy and financial significance.

Centuries later, we have tried to industrialize nixtamalization, with terrible impact on the environment, the nutritional quality of masa, and excess use of energy resources – not to mention the lack of complex aromas and depth of flavors.

In modern days, the role of women in Mexico has changed. Women who make tortillas to sell, for the most part, are using industrially produced corn meal. The concept of societal roles, and the loss of recognition of traditional flavors, have morphed the tortilla industry into an interesting reflection of society at large. Tortilla making is considered a lower-status job for women. In fact, anthropologist Lauren A. Wynne details how modern Yucatecan Maya women have no intention of making tortillas at home because they consider it lower-class activity, and the qualities of good-tasting tortilla have changed (“I Hate It”: Tortilla-Making, Class and Women’s Tastes in Rural Yucatán, Mexico,” Food, Culture & Society {18:3, 2015}.

An interesting side note to corn and its history, is what happened when the Spaniards came to Mexico. They were enchanted with this new grain. They’d never seen corn before and described it with delight in their letters back home; they created the name tortilla (little cake). They called it this because in southern Spain, where there was a significant Arabic influence, they made small round disks from chickpea flour, and it seemed similar. The Spanish then imported wheat and the flour tortilla was born.

After Europeans began cultivating corn, it became a popular food but led to a pandemic in poorer parts of society because, without nixtamalization, it lacked niacin; the deficiency brought on a disease called pellagra. Symptoms include inflamed skin, diarrhea, dementia, and sores in the mouth. Over time, the skin became thicker, peeled, and bled. If not treated, it was fatal. The same thing happened when Europeans settled in the southern part of the United States. Settlers relied on easily grown corn crops to survive, but neglected to learn the indigenous way of preparation. One could argue Nature herself served up a little social justice.

As most things go, history repeats itself. The traditional ways of cooking are becoming more interesting again, as our food resources become more expensive and less nutritious. There are several cooking schools in Huatulco that offer classes in traditional and modern Mexican cuisine.

There are also still women who make tortillas by hand, with corn they grew and processed themselves. If you are fortunate enough to have organic, indigenous corn, nixtamalized over a fire, and cooked over a traditional comal, you will notice the difference immediately.

Like history, women have always been circular. We have cyclical bodily rhythms, pregnant bellies, round with ripe life. It’s through the family circle we serve our immediate loved ones. We support each other, disguised as crafting circles. It only seems fitting, women will bring this art of circle-shaped tortilla-making back into the mainstream. There is something wholesome and delicious in the process. There’s a connection with the earth, history, and the elements when we connect with indigenous ways of cooking. If you have a chance to make even one tortilla with your own hands, take it. It’s a science and an art, and hopefully, together we can revive the womanly art of circles and tortillas.

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Tortillas y Más …

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By Randy Jackson

As a bread lover, it’s of little wonder that wherever or whenever I tried my first tortilla, I loved it at first taste. The Aztec (Nahuatl) word for tortillas is tlaxcalli (pronounced PLUX-cal-a). The Spanish name for this delightful flat bread is tortilla (“little round cake”). Maize tortillas emerged in early Mesoamerica and almost single-handedly enabled the flourishing of successive advanced civilizations in Mexico and Central America. The maize tortilla provided a stable source of calories and nutrients for millions of people across centuries.

Mexico remains the world’s largest consumer of tortillas. The Mexican per-capita tortilla intake, mostly in the form of corn tortillas, is 85 kilos per year (a little more than 187 pounds). In some parts of Mexico, this consumption is as high as 120 kilos per person, per year (just over 264 pounds). Checking in our fridge, 1 pkg of 10 whole wheat tortillas is 340 grams, so doing the math; 120 kilos of tortillas per capita per year = 9.6 tortillas per person per day. Global sales of tortillas in 2012 was estimated at $12 Billion USD, while tortilla chips and other corn snacks accounted for a further $10 Billion USD. Eso es mucho!

As a tortilla consumer – I’m a flour tortilla guy. And, although I’m OK with the reasonably healthy tortilla wraps, there are other, some might say, less healthy tortilla options too. I’m referring to a category of tortilla recipes called “stuffed tortillas.”

I would define stuffed tortillas as a baked or fried dish where some sort of filling is encased in tortillas. Enchiladas, chimichangas, and quesadillas are the most recognizable versions of stuffed tortillas. Of course, there are many more. One recipe I can speak to is something I call Mexican Deep Dish Tortillas. My version of this dish is made using an air fryer, and you can see my YouTube recipe video for it at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJtCC9OSsiM.

Of course, there is Tortilla Lasagna too, a dish that is right up my alley. Unfortunately, the current (July) heat wave in Western Canada has kept me from using the oven to make and report on this delectable stuffed tortilla dish.

Beyond food, for the real tortilla lovers the Internet has plenty of tortilla-themed items. In wearables I’ve found women’s dresses and skirts that look like tortillas. Something that caught my eye was a tortilla-style baby blanket. This could allow young parents to wrap their newborn up like a burrito. There are tortilla/burrito blankets for adults too – as you might imagine, they are round. I’m putting one on my Christmas list. And what about tortilla car air fresheners to hang from your rearview mirror? Yup, that too is just a click away.

In 2003, the state of Texas, proclaimed tortilla chips and salsa to be the official state snack (who knew – Texas even has an official state cobbler – Peach). NASA has used tortillas for astronaut meals in space since the 1980’s. Unlike bread, tortillas don’t leave crumbs to float about the space station. Scientists at the University of Houston have been working on extending the shelf life of tortillas for long-duration space missions. Tortillas now remain fresh tasting for up to 18 months on the ISS (International Space Station).

In 1977, in southeast New Mexico, in the kitchen of Maria Rubio, the face of Jesus appeared on a tortilla. This event became known as the Tortilla Miracle. The apparition became an international curiosity. Over the years thousands of people came to see the tortilla. The Tortilla Miracle changed the lives of the Rubio family. There were several TV appearances for Maria, including one on the Phil Donahue show. A movie titled “Tortilla Heaven” was made (starring George Lopez) based on this tortilla story. Through it all, Maria Rubio remained a devout Catholic. She believed in the divine origin of the Jesus image on the tortilla. It arrived at a critical time for the Rubio family. They were facing severe poverty and Maria’s husband was an alcoholic.

Unlike the Rubio family, few lives are changed by a tortilla. The virtue of tortillas is that they do represent an important food staple for the peoples of the Americas. And, I believe, eating a stuffed tortilla while wrapped in a tortilla blanket, can only be a good thing.