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Huatulco

¡Ojos! Watch Out!!! Avoiding the Venomous Snakes of Oaxaca

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By Deborah Van Hoewyk

One of Huatulco’s major attractions is its natural setting. From the famous “nine-bays-and-thirty-six-beaches,” to waterfalls and wildlife, to mountain trips and horse-back riding, being active outdoors is just at your doorstep. And going farther afield in Oaxaca, you find the lagoons and mangroves of the coast, the frozen white waterfall of Hierve el Agua (literally, “boil the water”), and the hiking trail between the eight villages of the Pueblos Mancomunados (hard to translate, sort of a “community of towns”), to name just a few outdoor adventures.

In all of these environs, you will find snakes. Some are venomous, and some are harmless. Left alone, all of them will leave you alone. But should you not be looking, and step on one, it may well attack you. Here are the venomous ones, what they look like, and where you should be watching out for them.

The Vipers

Rattlesnakes. There are two kinds of vipers in Mexico, and most belong to the genus Crotalinae, the rattlesnakes. In the articles in this issue on snake venom, you will learn that Oaxaca has its share of rattlesnakes. Rattlesnakes are “pit” vipers – they have pits near their eyes that contain heat-sensing organs. The sensors let the snake “see” warm-blooded prey. Most hunt at night, so the heat-sensing is key to being able to strike at their prey in the dark.

There’s the pygmy rattlesnake (Croatalus ravus, with three subspecies) – it’s 18-30 inches long and is found in the mountains. It is the usual mottled brown you associate with rattlesnakes.

There’s the black-tailed rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus oaxacus) – it grows to over 4 feet long, and is found in the desert, mesquite grasslands, and pine-oak forests (in the Sierras between 7,000 and 10,000 feet). It comes in varied colors – brown, yellowish, olive-greeny – but the scales on its tail are black.

The small-headed rattlesnake (Crotalus intermedius) – is small all over, growing to about 24 inches long. It is found in the pine-oak forests on the mountains, and looks like your idea of a rattlesnake.

The famous fer de lance. Another pit viper, even more to be avoided than the rattlesnakes, is the fer de lance (“spearhead,” Bothrops asper). Various species of Bothrops have been called fer de lance, so herpetologists prefer the term terciopelo (velvet) for Bothrops asper (see Julie Etra’s article elsewhere in this issue). The terciopelo looks pretty much like a rattlesnake, although its head is somewhat bigger and flatter, dark on top and light on the bottom. The female terciopelo grows much larger than the male; males can be 4-6 feet long, but females can exceed 8 feet.

You are not likely to see any terciopelos in Huatulco, as they do not like the dry winters. Unlike rattlesnakes, they prefer a moist environment; if you visit the tropical rainforests or cloud forests of the Yucatán or Chiapas, you could indeed find them; young ones like to climb trees.

Given that vipers hunt at night, using their heat sensors, you might want to reconsider any nature adventures scheduled for after dark.

The Elapids

The Elapidae family of snakes are the stuff of nightmares – they have permanently erect fangs (rattlesnakes and terciopelos have hinged fangs) and when ticked off, are exceedingly testy, not to mention exceedingly venomous. Some rise up and spread out the skin of their neck like a hood – think Indiana Jones and cobras.

The Oaxacan coral snake (Micrurus ephippifer and Micrurus ephippifer zapotectus) is found in tropical deciduous forests, as in the Huatulco National Park, or farther up in the pine-oak forests of the mountainsides. These snakes can be quite small, and almost never exceed 3 feet. They like to burrow under leaf litter, logs, forest debris – you won’t see them before you step on them. They are also fond of wetlands, so watch your step on marshy ground.

Sea Snakes

The subfamily Hydrophiinae contains the sea snakes. Note that there are very rarely Hydrophiinae in the Atlantic (a few have been sighted in the Caribbean, but it is thought that humans released them or perhaps they made it through the Panama Canal).

Sea snakes do, however, occur in the Pacific waters of Huatulco, and they are poisonous. They do not attack humans, preferring to strike fish, paralyzing them with their venom so they can chew them up at leisure.

The only one you are likely to see in Huatulco waters is the yellow-bellied sea snake (Hydrophis platurus). This snake is extremely venomous. While its coloring can vary, it is usually black on top and yellow or light brown on the belly, and the colors are clearly separate. Its tail is flattened from top to bottom, has a marked pattern (usually spots), and helps the snake swim. Males are less than 30 inches long, while females can be up to 35 inches long. The water needs to be above 61˚F (16˚C) for long-term survival.

On the other hand, I myself have seen what appeared to be an aquatic coral snake (Micrurus surinamensis) while out watching dolphins. Definitely red, white/yellow, and black. If that’s what it was, it was considerably off course, since its usual habitat is the Pacific waters off northern South America. Of course, it could have been a Oaxacan coral snake wandering off from the wetlands of the Parque Nacional …

Huatulco

Going Out and Under

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By Kary Vannice

Some of Mexico’s most fantastical and fascinating outdoor pursuits aren’t actually outdoors but underground. With over 7,000 recorded cave systems scattered across the country, Mexico boasts some of the most extensive and awe-inspiring underground networks in the world. Beneath its amazing surface lies an even more mesmerizing world waiting to be discovered – a labyrinth of caves, caverns, and underground rivers that weave throughout Mexico, telling the earth’s ancient origin story.

Mexico is, of course, well known for its diverse landscape, from lush green jungles to towering blue mountains, but it’s her vast subterranean realm that can truly captivate the adventurous spirit. Each cave system tells a story of geological evolution, carved out over millions of years by relentless forces of nature.

One of Mexico’s most iconic cave systems is the cenotes of the Yucatán Peninsula. Cenotes are ancient sinkholes formed by the collapse of limestone bedrock to reveal a hidden world of crystal-clear waters and intricate caverns. Exploring the cenotes offers a unique opportunity to swim, snorkel, or dive amidst massive stalactites and stalagmites as shafts of sunlight pour down from surface openings, lighting up the subterranean landscape. If you’re visiting the Yucatán, you can find many guided tours that will safely allow you to experience these hidden wonders.

Venturing further into Mexico’s underground realm, you can explore the sprawling cave systems of the Sierra Madre Oriental on the eastern side of the country. Here, limestone cliffs give way to a network of caverns adorned with stunning formations, including delicate helictites, which, unlike stalactites and stalagmites, look like they were formed in zero gravity. They can extend horizontally or even diagonally across the cave’s surface often ending up looking like sea coral growing out of the depths. Also, in this area, you will find the Cave of Swallows, one of the largest vertical cave shafts in the world. It plunges over 1,200 feet straight down for anyone seeking an adrenaline rush by rappelling a quarter of a mile down into the black abyss.

If you’re looking for a more immersive experience, the Rio Secreto in the Riviera Maya provides a journey through an underground river system that flows beneath the pristine jungle above. Kayaking or floating through the subterranean waterways reveals a hidden world of ancient rock formations and subaqueous chambers where the echoes of dripping water create a symphony of sound that reverberates through the caverns.

But perhaps one of Mexico’s most extraordinary underground landscapes lies deep beneath the surface of Naica, Chihuahua – the Cave of the Crystals. Located 300 meters within the Naica Mine, this otherworldly cavern is renowned for its gigantic gypsum crystals. Some of the crystals inside the cave are as tall as a 4-story building and weigh over 50 tons. Humans in this environment look like tiny ants surrounded by perfectly formed, crystal clear prisms and luminescent shafts of light. The cave’s extreme conditions, with temperatures reaching up to 58°C (136°F), along with humidity levels nearing 100%, created the perfect environment for forming these monumental crystals over thousands of years.

So breathtakingly beautiful, this true marvel of the underground world was featured on the Discovery and History Channels and the Outdoor Life Network in Canada. These programs offered a rare glimpse into this surreal underworld that seems more like a scene from science fiction than reality. Unfortunately, unlike many other underground wonders in Mexico, your only opportunity to experience this mystical landscape is on TV. Discovered initially as part of a mining exploration that required pumps to keep the underground water from filling the chamber, the caves were allowed to re-flood when mining operations ceased in October of 2015. Nevertheless, the mere existence of this extraordinary ecosystem serves as a testament to the incredible geological diversity and untold mysteries that lie beneath Mexico’s surface.

Mexico’s expansive cave systems offer a gateway to a realm where time stands still, and the earth reveals its hidden treasures. Each unique cave system tells a story of geological wonder and cultural significance. You just have to be adventurous enough to look below the surface.

Huatulco

Popocatépetl and Family

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By Julie Etra

With 38 volcanoes, a dozen of them active, Mexico still only has the eighth most volcanoes in the world. It’s not the world leader in earthquakes, either. However, the mutual potential for for volcanoes and earthquakes to cause disaster hangs over the country like a pall of smoke.

Mexico’s Big Three Volcanoes

Popocatépetl, an active volcano, is the second highest peak in Mexico at an elevation of 5,393 m (17,694 ft), following the highest peak, Citlaltépetl (Pico de Orizaba) at an elevation 5,636 m (18,491 ft). It is affectionately known by its nickname “El Popo.” Its name is derived from the Nahuatl popōca, meaning “it smokes” and tepētl, meaning “mountain” or “smoking mountain.” Citlaltépetl is also derived from Nahuatl: citlal means “star” and of course tepētl = mountain. (There is a stationary store on Gardenia called Papeleria Citlalli, so now you know what it means.)

At an elevation 5,230 m (17,160 ft), Iztaccíhuatl is the third highest mountain in Mexico and occurs just north of El Popo. Its name means white woman in Nahuatl (iztāc = “white”; cihuātl = “woman”), since it resembles a woman lying on her back and is often snow-covered.

The three volcanoes are located to the east of Mexico City: Popocatépetl is about 70 km (43 miles) southeast of Mexico City, where the states of México, Morelos, and Puebla meet; on a clear day, it is easily seen from the city. Iztaccíhuatul is about 90 km (54 miles) from Mexico City. Pico de Orizaba, about 200 km (120 miles) from Mexico City, rises just west of the city of Orizaba at the border of the states of Puebla and Veracruz. Those who drive to Huatulco from the north easily see Popocatepétl and Iztaccíhuatul looking south from 150D; Pico de Orizaba is on your left as you leave the state of Puebla and enter Veracruz.

All three volcanos are steep-walled stratovolcanos, generally symmetrical and cone-shaped and with a 400 x 600 m wide crater. Stratovolcanoes are sometimes called composite volcanoes because of their composite layered structure, formed from successive eruptions (strato = layer in Latin). And all three occur along the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt, aka the Mexican “Ring of Fire,” which stretches across central Mexico from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico – route 150D runs right through the middle of the volcanic belt.

El Popo is geologically connected to Iztaccíhuatl, 12.9 km (8 miles) to the north through the Paso de Cortés; this is the high pass that Hernando Cortés and his men followed after their conquest of Cholula in 1519, on their way to conquer the capital of the Aztec/Mexica Empire, Tenochtitlán.

The two volcanoes are protected as they lie in the Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park, which runs north and south within the Sierra Nevada range (Sierra Nevada means “snow covered” [nevada] “mountain range” [sierra]). On the west side of the range the watershed provides snow melt and creek water to the Valley of Mexico (formerly Lake Texcoco). Until relatively recently, the three volcanoes were the only instance of glaciation – they had year-round snow/ice cover – in Mexico; in the 1990s, however, both the Glaciar Norte and the Glaciar del Ventorillo of Popocatépetl began to retreat, due to both warming conditions and increased volcanism. Although ice remains in some places, Popocatépetl’s glaciers were gone by 2001.

Popocatépetl is Mexico’s most active volcano with 15 eruptions recorded since 1519. On May 20, 2023, both Mexico City airports (Benito Juarez Mexico City International Airport [MEX] and Felipe Angeles International Airport [NLU]) had to close temporarily due to increased volcanic activity and ash fall. Most recently, on November 1, 2023, the cone exploded with gray ash. This activity is not unusual, and in fact we stopped to watch it smoking on our way from Mexico City to Puebla a few years ago, with the sun setting behind it. Spectacular. Iztaccíhuatl is dormant and has not erupted since 1868. Pico de Orizaba last erupted in 1846.

Legends of the Mexican Volcanos

The Legend of Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl. Legend has it that these two mountains represent a young warrior and a young princess. Once upon a time in Mexico (but after the rise of the Aztec empire), a beautiful Tlaxcalan maiden princess named Iztaccíhuatl fell in love with a young Tlaxcalan warrior, Popoca. (Tlaxcala is now a small state southeast of Mexico City.) She was the most beautiful princess who ever existed, and he was one of the most handsome and brave warriors of his village.

The Tlaxacans sided with the Spanish during the conquest of 1519-1521 in an effort to end the costly tributes they paid to the sprawling Aztec empire with its centralized, wealthy capital of Tenochtitlán (basically, Mexico City). Before departing for the ongoing wars with the powerful Aztecs, Popoca asked the cacique (chief) of the village for the hand of the princess. This was granted under the condition that the young man return safe and sound.
Popoca left for battle, presumably with the forces of Cortés, while the princess waited impatiently for his return. Meanwhile a jealous, poison-tongued rival, also in love with the princess, lied to her, fabricating a story of how her beloved had died in battle. Overcome by grief and inconsolable through this treacherous deceit, she died from a broken heart. A short time later, Popoca returned victoriously from battle ready to take the hand of his betrothed, only to find that she had died.

It is said that the young man, dejected, wandered through the streets for days and nights contemplating a way to honor their great love for each other. He decided to build her a large tomb under the Sun and compiled 10 hills to build an enormous mountain. Once built, he took the inert body of his beloved and laid her on the top of the mountain. As he kneeled over her with a smoking torch in one hand, he kissed her one last time, watching her dream eternally.

Since then, they have remained together. Eventually snow covered their bodies, becoming the two snow-capped enormous volcanoes that will remain unchanged until the end of time. When the warrior Popoca, now the mountain Popocatépetl, remembers his beloved Iztaccíhuatl, his heart, which maintains the fire of eternal passion, trembles, and his torch ignites again. That is why, even today, the Popocatépetl volcano continues to spew plumes of smoke from its fumaroles.

The Legend of Pico de Orizaba. At the peak of the Olmec civilization lived a beautiful and brave warrior named Nahuani. She was always seen in the company of her best friend, an eagle named Ahuilizapan (in Nahuatl, the “place of the happy waters,” pronunciation reduced to “Orizaba” in Spanish). Their friendship was legendary, and Ahuilizapan was always with her in battle. Finally, Nahuani died in battle and such was Ahuilizapan’s sadness and pain, the eagle flew as high as she could and plummeted back down to earth, where she eventually became a mountain and then a volcano. After many years of relative tranquility, Ahuilizapan remembered the moment she lost her best friend and began to spew lava. This is the reason that even now people climb this peak as high as they can, leaving offerings to keep the eagle calm.

Geology and a Brief Lesson in Plate Tectonics

Or, why the southern coast of Mexico is particularly prone to earthquakes.

The rigid outer shell of the planet, known as the lithosphere, is fractured into seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates (“platelets”). Where the plates meet, their motion in relation to each other determines the type of plate boundary, known as faults and fault zones. They can move side by side, known as a strike slip, and under adjacent plates, called subduction, and in all kinds of combinations of movement. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually. Faults result in earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation. The Trans-Mexican volcanic belt and associated volcanoes result from the the Pacific Plate and the smaller Cocos Plate subducting beneath the North American Plate.

Oaxaca lies over the convergent boundary where the Cocos Plate is subducted beneath the North American Plate. The rate of convergence in this part of the boundary is 60 mm per year, or six times what is typical. This boundary is associated with many damaging earthquakes along the plate interface, within the descending Cocos slab, and within the overriding North American Plate

The frequency of earthquakes along the Pacific coast of Mexico is increased by geologic activity in the Middle American Trench, a submarine depression that runs from below Baja California in Mexico to Costa Rica. This oceanic trench is a major subduction zone, containing the Pacific, Cocos, and Nazca Plates on the ocean side and the North American and Caribbean Plates on the inland side. The trench is 2,750 km (1,700 miles) long and 6,669 m (21,880 feet) deep at its deepest point.

The Tehuantepec Ridge runs straight (an unusual configuration) across the Cocos Plate and under mainland Mexico near the Oaxaca-Chiapas border. The ridge is an old fracture zone, a place where plates stick; many shallow subduction angles result in perfect conditions for frequent, strong Oaxacan earthquakes. Indeed, Oaxaca has had over 14,000 earthquakes in or near the region since 1995; a quarter of all the earthquakes in Mexico occur in Oaxaca, and no, there is no homeowner’s earthquake insurance that I know of.

Notable Mexican Earthquakes
Oaxacan earthquake of 1931. On January 14, 1931, a devastating earthquake with a magnitude of 7.8 struck the state capital, Oaxaca de Juárez. Oaxaca City was pretty isolated at the time, with only 35,000 inhabitants versus the current population of 300,050 (2014 census). The quake lasted about four minutes. Archives reported that 80% of the homes were destroyed, but a number of weaker tremors, or foreshocks, increasing in intensity, preceded the major quake, as opposed to aftershocks (replicas in Spanish). This tectonic warning allowed residents to flee their homes, resulting in only about 60 fatalities.

Mexico City earthquake of 1985 struck on September 19 at just after 7 a.m. with a magnitude of 8.0. (For reference, the strongest earthquake ever recorded was a magnitude 9.5; the Great Chilean Earthquake occurred in Valdivia, a town on the southern coast of Chile, on May 22, 1960.) The Mexico City seismic event caused serious damage to the Greater Mexico City urban area and at least 5,000 fatalities. A foreshock of magnitude 5.2 had occurred the prior May, the main quake was September 19, and there were two large aftershocks whose epicenters were in the Middle American Trench – more than 350 kilometers (220 mi) away.

The event caused between $3 and $5 billion USD in damage. Hundreds of buildings were destroyed and thousands more were seriously damaged. The degree of damage was due to the large magnitude of the quake, the size of the urbanized area, the lack of engineering in old structures, and the ancient, wave-amplifying lake bed on which Mexico City lies. This unstable substrate proides one of the ostensible reasons that President Andrés Manuel López Obrador halted construction of a new Mexico City airport in 2018).

Oaxacan earthquake of 2108. The hypocenter of this magnitude 7.2 earthquake was located 24.5 km (15 miles) deep, and the epicenter was about 37 km (23 miles) northeast of Pinotepa de Don Luis in northwest Oaxaca near the border with the state of Guerrero. (The hypocenter is where IN the earth the quake starts; the epicenter is ON the surface). The epicenter was in a rural area, with little reported damage to structures. A total of 14 people were killed as a result of a military helicopter crash surveying the damage, and not from the earthquake itself.

Oaxacan earthquake of 2020. The last big earthquake in Oaxaca occurred on June 23, 2020, with a magnitude of 7.5. The epicenter was between San Miguel del Puerto (north and west of Copalita) and the small village of Santa María Zapotitlán on the Isthmus. While it shook here in Huatulco, with over 200 replicas, it devastated the town of Juchitán de Zaragoza on the Isthmus of Tehauntepec, where older structures were not engineered to withstand strong earthquakes. The quake was felt by an estimated 49 million people as far south as Guatemala, with some tremors felt as far away as 640 kilometers (400 mi). Thousands of houses in Oaxaca were damaged and ten fatalities were reported. A tsunami warning was issued for southern Mexico and as far south as Honduras, but the tsunami did not occur.

Mexican construction requirements have been strengthened to avoid earthquake damage. When we designed our house in Huatulco almost 15 years ago, the plans had to be approved by FONATUR in Mexico City, at the federal level, and withstand an 8.0 quake. That’s a lot of rebar but we had no damage to the house other than a few superficial cracks.

Huatulco

Conejos y Liebres

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By Julie Etra

Where we live, in Reno, Nevada, we consider rabbits a nuisance. (Nevada, by the way, means snow-covered, and the Sierra Nevada are snow-covered mountains – certainly so in December 2022). Rabbits eat a lot of grass and they reproduce rapidly and frequently. They deposit concentrated calcium from their urine and solid waste right where they forage, further stressing the grasses on which they continue to graze. On the other hand, rabbits are essential food for predators such as coyotes and birds of prey.

In Huatulco, we live in Residenciales Conejos, the subdivision with a symbol of a rabbit at the entrance, located on the Bahia de Conejos. So, I said to myself when we bought the lot, hmmm, bunnies. After 13 years in Res. Conejos, we do see an occasional bunny and/or their sign (pellets), but no hares (liebre, in Spanish) and our small patch of grass is not suffering from their presence.

What makes a rabbit a rabbit? First, they are mammals. In general, they have long ears (this varies considerably), a short tail, long hind legs, and continuously growing sharp incisors. Most species are gray or brown and range in size from 10 to 18 inches (25 to 45 cm) long and weigh 1 to 4 pounds (0.5 to 2 kg). They feed primarily on grasses.

There are four species of rabbits and one hare (a type of jackrabbit) found in the selva seca, or dry jungle, of Mexico (see Julie Etra’s article on the selva seca in Huatulco in the December 2022 issue of The Eye). Two of the rabbits are endemic, one of these is threatened and endangered, and the hare (Lepus flavigularis) is considered very rare.

Rabbits in the Jungle

The bunnies or cottontails found in the selva seca include the common tapeti cottontail (Sylvilagus brasiliensis), also called the Brazilian cottontail or forest cottontail. It is a small- to medium-sized bunny, with an expansive range from Tamaulipas to southern Mexico, through Central America, and as far as central Brazil. It has a small, dark tail, short hind feet and short ears. The tapeti cottontail is nocturnal and solitary

The Mexican cottontail (Sylvilagus cunicularius) is endemic to Mexico and the selva seca. This is the dude or dudette(s) (macho y hembra) we would be lucky to see in Huatulco. It is the largest of the Mexican rabbits. Preferred habitats include temperate, subtropical or tropical dry forests, and pastureland. It is a common bunny and is found from Sinaloa south to the states of Veracruz and Oaxaca. It breeds year-round, but particularly in the wet season when there is more quality forage available. Although this bunny is pretty common, it still faces the threats typical for rabbits (and other wildlife), including loss of habitat through land use conversion (grazing, agriculture, urban development), hunting, and predation.

The eastern cottontail, Sylvilagus floridanus, is the most common cottontail in North America. Interestingly, it’s not the cottontail that forages on our meadow and lawn in northern Nevada – that’s the mountain cottontail (Sylvilagus nuttallii). The eastern cottontail has a short lifespan due to high rates of predation by numerous predators, rarely living past the age of two. It issues a creepy scream when injured (as does the mountain cottontail).

Sylvilagus graysoni is endemic to Mexico and is in danger of extinction. Its common name is the Tres Marías cottontail, as it is endemic to the Tres Marías Islands off the coast of Nayarit, where it was previously abundant. It is not found along the selva seca of Oaxaca or other dry tropical forests in Mexico. Given its limited range and occurrence, it only has three known wildlife predators: the Tres Marías racoon (Procyon lotor insularis), a subspecies of the common racoon, and two birds of prey, the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) and the crested caracara (Caracara plancus), the latter being common on our coast. The Tres Marías cottontail is also threatened by hunting. Although not a lot is known about their behavior, given the remoteness of the Tres Marías Islands and the low number of predators, the rabbit is purportedly not wary of humans. As with other rabbits in similar habitats, its diet changes from herbaceous vegetation in the rainy season to sticks and bark in the dry months of winter.

The Hares of the Isthmus

Lepus flavigularis is endemic to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, more specifically the Gulf of Tehuantepec, and in fact the common name is the Tehuantepec or tropical jackrabbit. Historically it was found from Salina Cruz in Oaxaca to Tonalá just over the border in Chiapas, but has not been seen that far east in recent years. Currently there are four small populations, all located around the Upper and Lower Lagoons of the Gulf of Tehuantepec – Salina Cruz is the major population center on the Gulf.

This very large-eared (up to 5 in, or12 cm), slender-bodied hare is well adapted to its often arid and hot environment. The large surface area of its ears helps regulate its temperature; the size of the ears enhances its hearing and ability to detect predators. The hind feet are large and well developed, allowing for rapid escape from predators. In general, adults weigh from 7.7 to 8.8 pounds (3.5-4.5 kg), with a body that measures 22-24 inches long (55-60 cm) and a tail 2.5 to 3.5 inches (6.5- 9.5 cm) in length. This jackrabbit reaches sexual maturity at six or seven months and is polygamous; they typically reproduce during the rainy season when there is an abundance of forage. After around 32 days of gestation, the mother hare gives birth to one to four kits.

The Tehuantepec jackrabbit is crepuscular, meaning active at dusk, and nocturnal when the ambient temperature drops. Habitat and diet are grasslands, where they prefer to forage native rather than introduced grasses. Threats to this species are typical for many species of wildlife: habitat loss due to urban encroachment and agriculture; introduction of non-native species, particularly annual grasses; hunting; and predation by coyotes and foxes. For more detail check out the following link: https://www.lifeder.com/liebre-de-tehuantepec/.

Since their primary diet in the rainy season is grasses, why is Bugs Bunny always munching on a carrot? What’s up with that, doc?

Huatulco

Huatulco’s Selva Seca

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By Julie Etra

How many times have you heard a newbie’s surprise upon arriving in Huatulco in the dry season, which corresponds with the high tourist season, wondering what happened to the lush tropical green jungle shown on glossy brochures and websites?

What is the Selva Seca?

Welcome to the selva seca, the “dry jungle.” Huatulco has a caducifolio, or deciduous, ecosystem, an unusual semi-tropical forest in which most trees lose their leaves. Although not unique to Mexico, it is best represented in this country, and it occurs in a number of Mexican states, in particular along our beautiful Oaxacan coast. The selva seca occupies approximately 11.7% (226,898 km²) of the total area of Mexico, along the Pacific coast from southern Sonora and southwestern Chihuahua to Chiapas, continuing to Tehuantepec with small portions in the extreme south of the Baja California Peninsula and in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula. Selvas secas are generally found from sea level up to 1,500 meters, and occasionally to 1,900 meters above sea level in very dry areas.

The selva seca is described as warm-subhumid tropical – it gets HOT. As any Huatulqueño can attest, this warm climate has an average annual temperature of 27ºC (80.6ºF), a bit lower in the ‘winter’ and dry months, with approximately 330 sunny days a year. The rainy season, which dumps an average of 100 cm (over 39 inches), ends around November/December, and starts again in late May/June, preceded by a very hot, humid, and buggy period in mid-to-late April until the rains begin. Soils are typically rocky, with a poorly developed layer of organic matter.

This ecosystem can be further divided into subcategories; the selva seca on the Oaxacan coast, about 66,492 sq. km (about 24,670 sq. mi.), is described as selva baja caducifolia or selva baja espinosa caducifolia, with espinosa meaning “spiny,” as we do have a number of spiny plants and many species of cactus. In English it is also referred to as low (the baja part) deciduous forest, tropical deciduous forest, low deciduous forest, or sub-humid forest. These forests are considered evergreen when less than 25% of the species lose their leaves, sub-evergreen when 25 to 50% of the species lose their leaves, sub-deciduous (50 to 75% of the species lose their leaves) or deciduous (more than 75% of the species lose their leaves). Since more than 75% of the coastal trees lose their leaves, the coast of Oaxaca is best defined in English as deciduous.

Plant Life of the Selva Seca

This forest has approximately 6,000 species of plants, of which almost 40 are endemic, meaning they are only found in these ecosystems and are adapted to drought.

The height of the dominant woody vegetation is often 15 meters or less (under 50 feet) for the selva baja. In addition to trees, this ecosystem supports a variety of shrubs, lianas (vines), epiphytes (the pinkish pineapple-like piñuela seen in the planting beds of many of the medians on major roads) and agaves.

Small trees include the huaje or guaje (Leucaena leucocephala), for which Oaxaca was named (it means “place where the huaje grows”), which produces a pea-like pod replete with peas. Some trees like the cuachalalá or cuachalalate (Amphipterygium adstringens), whose bark is used for medicinal purposes, drop their leaves at the very beginning of the dry season – snowbirds never get to see the leaves.

The guanacastle or guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum), Huatulco’s magnificent huge shade tree, welcomes visitors and residents en route from highway 200 to Huatulco, along the median just south of the Fonatur logo. In early to mid-April, the guanacastles exhibit new bright green leafy growth, having detected the increase in ambient humidity.

There are at least five species of copal (Bursera spp.), all of which drop their leaves in winter. One species, known commonly as mulato, has the gorgeous flakey red bark so visually outstanding in the native forest. Copal trees produces a resin which hardens into incense used in spiritual ceremonies for centuries; the bark apparently also produced pigments for painting the ancient ruins of Mexico. Most people who visit Mexico, however, will encounter the wood of a copal tree when they purchase an alebrije, the colorful, fanciful figures carved and painted by Mexical folk artists.

What Stays Green in the Selva Seca?

Of course, not all our native species fall into the 75% deciduous category (by the way, coconut palms are not native, but we do have a native palm, the sabal Mexicana whose pencas (fronds) are used in palapa construction). Riparian corridors stay green, the shrubby ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens or madcogalii), with its white or red flowers, respectively, is barely deciduous, and the ceiba tree, also called pochote, can look a little ratty, but not for long.

The Best of the Selva Seca

What I especially love about the dry season is the number of trees that flower! We have three species of macuil (Tabebuia rosea) with their big, showy purple, pink, and yellow flowers, the guayacán (Guaiaccum coulteri)with its yellow-centered purple flowers, and the magnificent cojón de caballo or cojón de toro (Tabernaemontana donnell-smithii), its large yellow flower appearing early in the winter, contrasting with its smooth white/silvery bark. Translated, as you might guess, as the horse- or bull-ball tree, it is named for the shape of its fruit, which grows in pairs.

The final benefit of being in the selva seca in the dry season is the birdlife, both residents and winter migrants. They are so much easier to see and identify in the less leafy landscape, making this area a winter birder’s paradise!

Huatulco

Ocean-Saving Innovations

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By Kary Vannice

The Eye has published any number of articles on threats faced by our oceans – here’s a review of progress achieved with the use of innovative technologies.

Restoring Our Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are critical underwater ecosystems that contribute to the overall health of our planet, not to mention the global economy. Coral reefs are major harbingers of biodiversity. Even though they occupy less than one percent of the ocean floor, they are home to more than 25% of all marine life. And more than 500 million people worldwide rely on reefs for their livelihood, food, and protection from natural disaster. Economically speaking, the value of coral reefs is around $7 billion US annually.

Because of their environmental and economic importance, protecting, regenerating, and restoring ocean reefs has become a major driver of scientific innovation and design. Australian researchers have recently tested two very innovative ideas to help regenerate the Great Barrier Reef, one above the water and one below.

Hoping to prevent the coral from dying out, a team of scientists created a special turbine that sprays microscopic sea particles into the sky above a reef. This fine mist creates a cloudlike shadow over the reef, which cools the water temperature below. The idea is to use this technique during heatwaves to protect the delicate habitat below from what’s known as “coral bleaching,” which puts the coral under extreme stress and often leads to its death.

Another team of Australian scientists has been testing a unique theory based on sound. They recognized that the more damaged a reef was, the less noise it produced. So, they began playing the sounds of a healthy reef over a loudspeaker underwater in an unhealthy reef location to see if it would have any beneficial effects. After a 40-day “acoustic enrichment” experiment, the number of fish within that section of the reef doubled, and the number of other species increased by 50%.

Cleaning Up Fossil Fuels

Over the last few decades, social and political pressures have forced major oil companies to clean up their act and work to prevent large-scale oil spillage. But a “hidden” pollutant may pose an even bigger problem in this area. In September, the US-based National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine released a report that said land-based runoff is up to 20 times higher than it was 20 years ago. Most of that runoff comes from highways, parking lots, vehicle washing, and vehicle fluid leaks that find their way into local streams and rivers that eventually run into our oceans.

With this kind of rapidly increasing pollution, cleaning fossil fuels out of our oceans is quickly becoming an environmental priority.

In May of this year, a team of Mexican scientists from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) made the news with a new technique that can be used to clean oil and other substances, like fertilizers, out of the oceans.

The team created nanotubes made from a combination of an aluminosilicate clay mineral (halloysite) and a highly magnetic mineral (magnetite). Once the nanotubes are deployed, they can apply a magnetic field and essentially “pull out” the oil. Their project leader, Marina Vargas Rodriguez, explained, “If the spill occurs near the beach, we will have the option of pulling the contaminant into the open sea so that it does not affect our beaches and, at the same time, the oil can be recovered and reused.”

This new technology does not adversely affect marine wildlife, and once the oil is recovered, it can be reused, so it does not go to waste.

Addressing Acidification

The ocean naturally absorbs about 30% of the carbon dioxide (CO2) from our atmosphere. Industrial activity has steadily increased the amount of CO2 in our air, which means the ocean now absorbs significantly more than historically normal levels. As CO2 dissolves into the ocean, it combines with seawater and becomes carbonic acid. This changes the pH of the water and acidifies our oceans.

A Newfoundland-based non-profit called GreenWave has developed a system of ocean farming that regenerates underwater ecosystems by creating carbon and nitrogen sinks. This trapping of excess carbon and nitrogen helps to reduce ocean acidification. This innovative underwater framing model focuses on vertical farming of scallops, mussels, oysters, and clams, all for human consumption, and seaweed that is turned into animal feed, fertilizers, and plastic alternatives.

This project not only helps to reduce acidification, but it also produces environmentally friendly farmed shellfish and other organic byproducts to help reduce environmental pollutants like chemical fertilizers and single-use plastics.

Another, perhaps less practical, but equally innovative attempt at acidification reduction comes from the San Francisco-based nonprofit Vesta. With a team of scientists with a range of disciplines, Vesta proposes to cover 2% of the world’s beaches with crushed olivine – the area required to offset 100% of human CO2 emissions. Olivine is a green volcanic mineral that naturally absorbs CO2, which means it’s basically an air purifier, naturally sucking carbon dioxide out of the sky and ocean, locking it inside, and eventually becoming part of beneficial marine environments such as coral reefs.

Olivine can absorb up to 1.25 tons of carbon dioxide for every ton of olivine, but this process normally takes millions of years. However, Vesta researchers theorize that if they grind the olivine into a fine sand and distribute it on beaches, wave action can accelerate the process and help reduce acidification more quickly. There are already four strikingly green olivine beaches that occur naturally in Hawaii, the Galápagos Islands, Guam and Norway.

These are just a few of the thousands of innovative projects focused on saving our ocean ecosystems. If you’re interested in learning more about creative innovations that aim to solve our current climate crisis, you can check out the World Economic Forum’s open innovation platform, https://uplink.weforum.org/uplink/s/, which facilitates entrepreneurial “positive systemic change for people and the planet.”

Huatulco

Update on the Monarch Butterfly

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By Jan Chaiken and Marcia Chaiken

Mexico plays an important role in the life cycle of Mariposa monarca, or monarch butterfly, a species that is rapidly dwindling due to climate change. Every year monarchs migrate thousands of miles from northeastern US and Canada southward for the winter, and then northward for the summer. The southbound destination for about 70 percent of all these butterflies is in a forest between Michoacán and Estado de Mexico that has been set aside by Mexico as the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve. This 56,000-hectare (140,000-acre) reserve was established in 1980, at which time the number of butterflies migrating there was estimated in the hundreds of millions, approaching a billion. This was well before any significant level of concern about climate change.

Monarchs are known to have migrated to this area since pre-Hispanic times, centuries ago. Studies of the legends of pre-Columbian indigenous people in Michoacán found descriptions of swarms of butterflies flying high overhead in November. The legends depicted them as protectors of the souls of deceased relatives who were returning for Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead), which is celebrated around the same time.

As the Climate Warms, Monarchs Disappear

The population of migratory monarchs is estimated annually by measuring the area in Mexico’s Biosphere reserve that is covered with butterflies in mid-winter. Analogous measurements are made for the western monarch butterfly, which overwinters in California, including at a reserve near our US home. A few decades ago, there were so many butterflies that the sound of their wings in the trees was like a rippling stream or a rainstorm. Now visitors or scientists have to stand quietly still and stare carefully to observe any butterflies.

The decline in the number of butterflies overwintering in Mexico has been so precipitous (estimated at up to 99 percent in this century, and currently averaging 22 percent per year) that in July 2022 monarchs were placed on the threatened species list of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), meaning that they are in danger of worldwide extinction unless there is major intervention.

Climate change has impacted the migratory pattern of the monarchs, both in the US and Canada where they breed and in Mexico where they overwinter and become dormant. The temperatures where the butterflies become dormant need to stay cool enough so the butterflies’ metabolism is suppressed and they don’t need to eat nectar (which is nonexistent in the winter) to survive. As temperatures rise in the overwinter destinations, the butterflies become more active but do not have the food they need for survival.

The butterflies actually have developed an adaptation to address this problem. Researchers who take measurements annually observe that the monarchs adjust upward the elevation of resting places they choose in the forests of Mexico. However, the adaptation (around a meter upward a year) has not been adequate to counteract all effects of climate change. For example, climate change has also produced unpredictable fluctuations between too hot and too cold for the butterflies, or between too rainy and too dry.

As Habitat Disappears, So Do Monarchs

Another effect of climate change particularly important to monarchs is the gradual disappearance of milkweed in fields of the US and Canada. Milkweed plants are the only location where female monarchs lay their eggs, so their absence leads to an interruption of the reproductive purpose of the northward portion of migration. In addition to climate change’s detrimental effect on milkweed plants, grasslands containing milkweed and nectar-producing wildflowers in the areas on the butterflies’ migration routes are being converted to cornfields to produce cattle feed and to ranches where the herds can range. The more corn and cattle, the more methane produced by the cattle, the more climate change, the fewer wildflowers and milkweed plants, and thus fewer monarchs.

So what, aside from eschewing steak and hamburgers, should be done to help prevent extinction of the monarchs? The World Wildlife Foundation has a simple recommendation that can be carried out by individual families on the migratory routes. Their motto for this recommendation is “all it takes is one square foot.” By planting native local wildflowers in a garden or flower box, you can assist all kinds of pollinators – not only monarchs but bees and hummingbirds, which are also experiencing declining populations.

You may be rewarded by the sight of monarchs coming to sip nectar from your minigarden – not the erstwhile millions, but in sufficient numbers to know we haven’t entirely wiped these beautiful beings from the face of the earth.

Huatulco

A Birdwatching Guide for Huatulco

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By Randy Jackson

It’s almost as if humans have a special connection to birds. It is a heart-warming delight for all of us to see or hear a bird. I could even imagine some brutish invading Hun pausing his evil deeds to watch a little bird hop from branch to branch, singing a pretty song. Birds soften us all, especially little birds.

In my view, all of us are somewhere on the birdwatching spectrum. There’s that Hun at one end. At the other end of the spectrum is the fully kitted-out, pocket-ladened dude or dudette (ornithologist), who devotes a good portion of their time seeking even a brief glimpse of an avian creature.

On the birdwatching spectrum, I’m somewhere in the middle. I’m more of a bird appreciator. I do own a copy of “Birds of Mexico and Central America” and I have a pair of binoculars. I also have a few birdwatching friends. It is through these friends that I have met an amazing birdwatching guide who lives in Copalita – everyone just calls him Cornelio.

Cornelio (Cornelio Ramos Gabriel) is well known for his bird-guiding prowess, both locally and online. Cornelio grew up, and currently lives, in Copalita. As a young boy, while out gathering wood for cooking, he was intrigued by a little red breasted bird. Flash forward to one day in 1998 when he was working at the Camino Real resort. Some tourists showed him a photo of a red breasted bird and asked if he’d ever seen one. Cornelio took them to the place he had seen that little bird as a young boy. To everyone’s delight, they found the very bird the tourists were looking for.

As Cornelio described it, “when I looked at that bird through the tourists’ binoculars, I fell in love with birds.” He then bought a bird guidebook, a pair of binoculars, and began walking trails seeking out birds in earnest. Even when on his motor scooter, if he caught sight of a bird, he would follow it until he could identify it. In this way, over time, Cornelio became an expert on the birds in the Huatulco area.

Around the year 2010, by word of mouth, people began asking for Cornelio to guide them bird watching. This guiding work continued to increase, so that by 2014 he was able to leave his hotel job. Guiding bird watchers became his principal job. This work is largely seasonal for Cornelio, who is also a musician.

Before the devastating effects of hurricane Agatha on Copalita, I was able to ask Cornelio some questions on bird watching in Huatulco:

What are some good places to observe birds in Huatulco?

Huatulco National Park, Sendero Candelabro (on Cornelio’s ranch in Copalita, http://www.facebook.com/senderocandelabro), and along the Copalita River.

How important or popular is bird watching in Huatulco?

Huatulco is a good area for birdwatchers. On a good full-day walk, one can observe about 100 to 120 species.

What is the season for migratory birds in Huatulco?

Northern migratory birds begin to arrive in October and they leave again in March. Birds migrating from the south are around Huatulco between April and July.

Have you seen birds in Huatulco that were well off course, possibly blown here by a storm?

Yes, I’ve seen a giant cowbird and a Tahitian petrel.

What is the rarest bird you’ve seen in Huatulco?

Northern Potoo

Any particular captivating bird watching experiences?

Once in the community of La Esmeralda [a five-hour drive northeast of Huatulco, on the border with Veracruz], in two days I observed 30 birds I’ve never seen before.

Cornelio’s reputation has spread to the extent that he sees increasing numbers of serious bird watchers who wish to see the endemic birds of Southern Mexico.

To contact Cornelio, many online links will put you in touch. Facebook, of course, or Tripadvisor, even a Google search for “bird watching Huatulco” will work. His own website is https://birdguidehuatulco.business.site/, or Whatsapp (52) 958-106-5749.

Note: At the time of writing this article, Hurricane Agatha hit the Huatulco area causing severe damage. The town of Copalita was severely hit. Cornelio’s family house was spared, but the homes of many friends and neighbours suffered devastating damage. Cornelio is involved in helping his neighbours out. One way of helping some people in Copalita is to send funds to Cornelio for this purpose.

The last word, of course, goes to the birds. Our relationships to these creatures holds an element of “uplifting of spirits,” somehow more so than with any other creature we see in nature. As Emily Dickinson has said “I hope you love birds too. It is economical. It saves going to heaven.”

Huatulco
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Bird Watching Guides and Resources
for the State of Oaxaca

By Kary Vannice

Of the 1,100 species of birds that live or migrate temporarily to Mexico, 736 inhabit Oaxaca. Oaxaca boasts the greatest biodiversity in the country, not just for bird life but for all plant and animal species.

For this reason, many biologists, naturalists, ornithologists, and birders flock to Oaxaca each year to explore and understand the immense diversity of bird life throughout the region. This avian diversity is attracted by Oaxaca’s vast territorial biodiversity, from 10,000-foot peaks and high mountain deserts
to coastal seashores and dense mangrove lagoons – it’s no wonder so many bird species either live or temporarily migrate through this region.

Whether you’re a serious, money-investing birder or simply a casual observer of nature, there’s a resource out there to help you enhance your appreciation and understanding of the birds of Oaxaca.

Several detailed bird books have been published dedicated to the birds of Oaxaca alone. If you’re the type that wants to have an entire encyclopedia of local birds to leaf through when out exploring, then you may wish to add these to your personal library.

Aves de la Lagunas Costeras de Oaxaca, Mexico – This detailed and beautifully published paperback book identifies 133 species of birds that live in or frequent the lagoons of the coastal waters of Oaxaca. Written by Paul Germain and Mateo Ruiz Bruce, this book was published in 2016. Paul, an Englishman who lived in the small village of Ventanilla while writing the guide, took years to painstakingly detail the characteristics of each bird species, as well as photograph them in their natural habitat. The book is written in English and Spanish. Even for those not dedicated to birding, it is a delightful book to explore and may just inspire the reader to pick up their binoculars and take to the lagoons in search of the unique species that live there.

This book is available for purchase locally in several shops in Ventanilla and the surrounding area.

Birds & Birding in Central Oaxaca by John M. Forcey is more of a checklist than an Audubon-type field guide, although it provides some information on each bird species included. One reviewer described it this way… “This annotated checklist includes details of habitat, elevation, breeding, dates for migratory birds, and local subspecies alongside information on the best locations in the area for bird-watching.”

This guide focuses on bird species you will find in the central portion of Oaxaca, including the Sierra Madre and high desert areas that occupy the center of the state. A handy tool for serious birders to keep a running tally of species they’ve spotted in the dense jungle or wide-open spaces as they tick each one off the list. The second edition was published in 2009 and is still available via Buteo Books online.

There are also many general field guides that cover the region of Oaxaca. A Field Guide to the Birds of Mexico and Adjacent Areas: Belize, Guatemala, and El Salvador, by Ernest Preston Edwards (3rd edition, 1998) is an illustrated guide to birds of these regions and contains 850 beautifully drawn, full-color depictions of regional birds. Many of the most common Oaxacan birds can be found in this guide.

Another popular bird book is A Guide to the Birds of Mexico and Northern Central America, by Steve N.G. Howell and Sophie Webb (2003, a new edition is coming out in August 2022). This book is very similar to the one mentioned above. It contains similar drawings/paintings of bird species, and it covers, generally, the same information about each individual species. Either of these books is a good choice for a general bird book for this region.

If you’re not serious enough about birding to invest in a field guide to have on hand but still enjoy identifying local birds while you are out enjoying nature, make a trip to the Mercado Orgánico de Huatulco, held in the main square in Santa Cruz Huatulco on the first and third Saturday of each month. Once there, ask for local naturalist photographer Jon Church. Jon almost always has a booth set up and sells some excellent one-page laminated bird guides that you can easily pop into your backpack or beach bag to have on hand.

If you have an excellent memory (or a good camera), you can snap a mental or real photo of the birds you see in the wild and use some of these online websites to identify the birds you’ve spotted once you get home.

Avibase – the World Bird Database is an excellent online resource that allows you to search by region (Oaxaca) and access a vast amount of detailed information about each species, including photos and recorded bird calls. (https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/)

Ebird – Much like Avibase, this is a crowd-sourcing database where birders can register and submit data, including photos, bird calls, location found, and other details about each sighting. The page dedicated to the state of Oaxaca identifies 739 different bird species from this area. (https://ebird.org/region/MX-OAX)

Naturalista – This is a Mexican website written in Spanish. Still, with the photos provided, one can easily identify the bird they are looking for and use the translation feature to learn more about the habitat and unique details about each species. This site also has an interactive map that will show you the location of each observation, if you are aiming to locate that one elusive bird, you just haven’t been able to cross off your list yet. (https://www.naturalista.mx/projects/aves-de-la-costa-oaxaca)

Of course, there are many friendly, dedicated birding guides with local knowledge that can arrange to take you to exactly where you need to go to get all the bird-watching action your heart can handle (see articles elsewhere in this issue). Checking out some of the books and websites above just might spark a passion you didn’t know you had!